jsb004-04

A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
Toshihiro Umehara
More than a few Japanese learners of English find it difficult to understand the way in which
some English noun-noun compounds are formed. Since the nominal compound describing
clothes made for children is children’s clothes, they naturally think that in the case of babies
it should be *babies’ clothes, whereas in fact the appropriate expression is baby clothes.
The learners might wonder why the singular form minus apostrophe’s should be used in
one case while the plural form plus apostrophe’s is used in the other. Similarly, although in
the case of women’s college only the plural is acceptable, in the case of women’s magazine
either the plural or the singular is preferred. Why is woman’s magazine acceptable whereas
woman’s college is not, despite the two being morphologically the same? In addition, the
noun-noun compounds children’s room and guest room, which share the word room, pose
a similar question. Whereas a plural noun with an apostrophe’s, children’s, should be used
as N1 in the compound noun describing a room for children, why should a singular noun
without an apostrophe’s (guest) be used for a room for guests? Why is *guests’ room not
acceptable?
These are questions having something to do with morphology. In the Japanese equivalents
to those pairs cited above, there is no morphological discrepancy between the pairs. All of
them are just N1 + N2 without an apostrophe’s or any plural marker. This can be seen in
joseishi / joshidai「女性誌」/「女子大」
、kodomofuku / akachanfuku「子供服」/「赤ち
ゃん服」、kodomobeya / kyakuma「子供部屋」/「客間」
．The English counterparts are,
however, not so simple. N1 can be the singular or plural alone, or also with an apostrophe’s,
or without an apostrophe’s, as in <a woman’s magazine / a women’s college>, <children’s
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Toshihiro Umehara
clothes / baby clothes>, <children’s room / guest room>. So, morphologically, English
noun-noun constructions are more complicated than their Japanese counterparts. The
question is whether the morphological differences in each compound must be attributed to
idiomatic usage, or whether we can find any principles governing the variations.
With noun- noun compounds it is also necessary to take into consideration the fact that
an expression such as the following that includes a genitive marker can be interpreted to
convey two different meanings.
my driver’s license
1. the driving license of my driver’s
2. the driving license of my own
What syntactical explanation can be made about the phenomenon that two different
meanings are produced from the same expression?
The purpose of this paper is to sort out these problems concerning noun-noun compounds
and to try to find out some principles, if there are any, on their formation. In doing this, the
writer of this paper has often referred to John R. Taylor (1996), and the second purpose of
the paper is to judge the validity of his arguments.
First, I would like to discuss genitive expressions which can be interpreted in two ways. Taylor
takes up the following two instances; the woman’s magazine and my driver’s license.（1）
（1）a. [the woman]’s [magazine]
b. the [woman’s magazine]
（2）a. [my driver]’s [license]
b. my [driver’s license]
（その女性の雑誌）
（その女性誌）
（私の運転手の免許証）
（私の運転免許証）
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A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
Without the brackets, there would be no morphological difference between ‘a’ and ‘b’ in
both (1) and (2). So, it would be impossible to tell which meaning is used without the
support of context. The difference in stress patterns between a. and b. can be helpful in
judging the intended meaning. In general, stress patterns between a phrase and a compound
are different. Oishi (1988) tells us about the stress of a compound as follows. In a
compound the head constituent on the right is classified by the first constituent on the left,
which means that the left constituent functions as a conspicuous means to characterize the
head on the right. In consequence, the first constituent receives the primary stress. Oishi
gives the following three examples.（2）
' （暗室）
（3）d' arkroom
' r' oom（暗い部屋）
cf. a dark
' （温室）
h' othouse
a hot' h' ouse （暑い家）
bl' ackbi r' d （クロウタドリ）
' rd（黒い鳥）
' bi
a black
These are examples of adjective-noun constructions, but things are the same in the case of
noun-noun constructions like tear gas and tooth decay. According to this explanation, the
genitive expressions cited above can be interpreted as compounds if their N1 receives the
primary stress, and conversely can be interpreted as phrases if their N2 receives the primary
stress.
' ne]
'
[magazi
(4) a. [the woman]’s
b. the [w' oman’s magazi n' e]
' cense]
(5) a. [my dri v' er]’s [li
' ver’s license]
'
b. my [dri
（その女性の雑誌）
（その女性誌）
（私の運転手の免許証）
（私の運転免許証）
In b of (4) and (5), N1 receives the primary stress, making them compounds (possessive
compounds), whereas in a of (4) and (5), N2 receives the primary stress, making them noun
phrases (prenominal possessive + noun).
In general, words are morphologically closed to augmentation by additional elements, while
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Toshihiro Umehara
phrases, on the hand, are open to augmentation by other elements such as adjectives. These
different syntactical properties make it possible to differentiate a word from a phrase or a
compound from a phrase by conducting the following test.
（6）a. [the woman]’s [torn magazine] （その女性の破れた雑誌） （noun phrase）
b. * the [woman’s torn magazine] *（その女性破れた誌）
（7）a. [my driver]’s [old license]
b. * my [driver’s old license]
（compound）
（私の運転手の古い免許証）
（noun phrase）
*（私の運転古い免許証）
（compound）
‘a’ allows a word to be inserted into it, therefore it functions as a phrase, but ‘b’ does not,
which means that ‘b’ does not function as a phrase, but as a word or a compound. In other
words, woman’s magazine and driver’s license in ‘b’ function as words or compounds.
Therefore, the determiners like the and my modify N1 alone in ‘a’, whereas they modify the
whole of N1+N2 or the whole compound in ‘b’.
The discussion that we have had above leads us to the conclusion that one of the two
possible interpretations of the meaning of the genitive expression comes from a prenominal
possessive, the other from a possessive compound. This does not necessarily mean that
noun-noun constructions only consist of a noun phrase and a possessive compound. A
possessive compound is a compound whose N1 has a genitive marker and is considered
to be a subpart of a noun-noun compound. It is also necessary to take non-possessive
compounds into consideration when we think of morphological possibilities of nominal
compounds. Besides the existence or nonexistence of a possessive marker, a further factor
increasing the number of possible morphological formations is the distinction between
singular and plural of N1. Furthermore, though they are not large in number, there are also
those compounds in which a hyphen connects N1 and N2, and there is even a completely
united type in which the space between N1 and N2 has disappeared.
Here I would like to add prenominal possessives to the compounds and to make a diagram
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A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
of noun-noun constructions.
NOUN + NOUN CONSTRUCTIONS
NP
PREN POSSESIVE
SIN N1+’s + N2
[my driver’s] [license]
SIN N1+’s + N2
my [driver’s license]
PLU N1+’s + N2
women’s college
SIN N1 ＋ N2
guest room
PLU N1 ＋ N2
suggestions box
SIN N1―N2
mouse-trap
SIN N1s N2
PLU N1s N2
tradesman
menswear
SIN N1N2
PLU N1N2
paperback
?
POSS COMP
COMP
NONPOSS COMP
SEPARATE
N+N COMPOUND
HYPHEN UNITED
N+N COMPOUND
UNITED
N+N COMPOUND
NP = NOUN PHRASE
PREN POSSESSIVE = PRENOMINAL POSSESSIVE
COMP = COMPOUND
POSS COMP = POSSESSIVE COMPOUND
SIN ＝ SINGULAR
PLU = PLURAL
As I pointed out in the beginning of this essay, the possible morphological combinations
in Japanese noun-noun compounds are quite limited, whereas those in their English
counterparts are not. Unlike Japanese, English is a language which has a clear
morphological distinction between singular and plural, and in addition to this, English has
a genitive marker, the apostrophe’s, and has a space between words. These properties can
expand morphological possibilities of noun and noun combination considerably. It is true
that Japanese has a genitive marker –no の and can form possessive compounds with it.
Take –ma 間 (room) as in kyakuma 客間 (guest room) for example.
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Toshihiro Umehara
Examples without [no]「の」:
ima 居間（living room）
、oosetsuma 応接間（drawing room）
、
（ oo） hiroma（大）広
間（grand hall）
、doma 土 間（earth floor<room>）
、nema 寝 間（bedroom）
、kashima
貸し間（room to let）
、yooma 洋間（Western-style room）
、kyakuma 客間（guest room）
Example with [no]「の」:　itanoma 板の間（room with a wooden floor）、tokonoma 床の間（alcove）、chanoma
茶の間（living room）、okunoma 奥の間（back room, parlor）
Besides these, there are indeed many compounds using –no の such as konoha「 木 の 葉 」
leaves, foliage, kusabanokage「草葉の陰」under the sod, in the grave, kusanone「草の根」
grass root, uminohi「海の日」
、Marine Day, hahanohi「母の日」Mother’s Day、tokinohito
「時の人」person in the news, but this does not necessarily mean that the possessive marker
–no の greatly increases the number of potential morphological combinations in noun-noun
compounds. There are only two possible combinations in Japanese: N1+N2, and N1+-no の
+N2. English, as stated above, has eight different possible combinations. The reason why
Japanese learners of English feel it difficult to use noun-noun constructions correctly is due to
the number of different combinations and the lack of explanation available as to why certain
combinations are used in certain cases. Grammar books, for one, offer no explanation. So I
would like to explore the mechanisms that inform the formation of noun-noun compounds,
focusing on the questions of whether to choose possessive markers or an apostrophe’s and
whether to choose the singular or the plural.
First, I would like to address the question of the use of a possessive marker or an
apostrophe’s. One can say that the use of apostrophe’s in noun-noun compounds is the same
as that of their general use. This use is explained in A Student’s Grammar of the English
Language by Sydney Greenbaum and Randolph Quirk as follows.（3）
the genitive is not used with all nouns equally but tends to be associated with those of
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A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
animate gender, especially with those having personal reference. For example
The dog’s name
Segovia’s most famous pupil
The student’s precious possessions
The committee’s decision
According to this explanation, the genitive is used with personal nouns as in the following
examples.
women’s college（女子大、女子寮）
、women’s clothes（婦人服）
、lady’s hat, women’s
hat（婦人帽）
、people’s finance（庶民金融）
、people’s life（国民生活）
、man’s cap
（男用帽子）
、man’s best friend（犬）
、man’s suit（紳士服）
、men’s wear（男子服）
、
gents' lavatory, men's lavatory（男子用トイレ）
、men's magazine（男子用雑誌）
、men's
cosmetics（男性用化粧品）
、doctor's degree（博士号）
、doctor's office（医院、診療
所）
、teacher's pet（先生のお気に入りの生徒［学生］
）
、teacher's college（教員養成
大学）
、girl’s school（女子校）
With some personal nouns, especially when they appear in the position of a modifying noun,
the genitive is obligatory. Take, women’s college, for example, you cannot say *woman
college, likewise you cannot say *women clothe or *man best friend; they have to be
women’s clothes and man’s best friend.
With inanimate nouns, especially highly abstract nouns appearing in the position of a
modifier, the genitive does not usually appear.
art college（美術大学）
car engine（自動車のエンジン）
、
、car factory（自動車工場）
、
television advertisement（テレビ広告）
、information industry（情報産業）
、book shelf
、tennis elbow（テニス肘）
、school board（教育委員会）
、desk work（デスク
（書架）
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Toshihiro Umehara
ワーク、机に向かってする仕事、事務）
、nerve gas（神経ガス）
、health insurance
（医療保険、疾病保険、健康保険、健康保険制度）
、wine cellar（ワイン貯蔵室）
、
brain death（脳死）
、cassette tape（カセット・テープ）
、body language（ボディー・
ランゲージ、身ぶり言葉、身体言語）
、summer vacation（夏休み）
This observation about the use of the genitive is, however, merely a generalization, and we
can find many instances which contradict this generalization. The following compounds are
some examples which do not have genitive markers even where human nouns are used.
child education（児童教育）
、child labor（児童労働）
、baby bottle（哺乳瓶）
、baby
buggy（乳母車）
、baby food（ベビーフード）
、teacher education（教員教育）
、tourist
agency（旅行社）
、woman doctor（女医）
、woman driver（女性ドライバー）
、student
activist（学生活動家）
student adviser
、
（学生のカウンセラー）
、student card
（学生証）
、
student evaluation（学生による教師の評価）
、student fare（学生割引運賃）
、doctor
bill（医療費）
、girl clerk（女
、doctor book（家庭用医学書）
、boy student（男子学生）
性事務員）
As we can find many instances of this, it is not appropriate to deal with them just as
exceptions. Taylor sets out two classes of noun-noun compounds with N1 human nouns
that exclude the use of a genitive. He argues that “there are some classes of noun-noun
compounds in which the possessive marker is prohibited. One such class comprises socalled ‘synthetic’ compounds, in which the modifier stands in a thematic relation, usually
that of Patient, to the head noun. A person who molests children is a child molester, not a
*child’s molester, or a *children’s molester. A second class comprises compounds where
the two nominal constituents are in apposition. A woman doctor is a doctor who is a
woman. This expression contrasts with woman’s doctor (or women’s doctor), i.e. “doctor for
women”. Likewise, student nurse “nurse who is a student” vs. student’s nurse (or students’
nurse) “nurse for students”.（4）
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A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
Taylor’s argument seems appropriate enough to explain the problem clearly, but do the
two classes posited by Taylor explain everything about noun-noun compounds in which
the possessive marker is prohibited, even in cases where a human noun is in the modifying
position? To ascertain this we must examine concrete examples.
In order to do so, I selected some human nouns and collected examples of noun-noun
compounds in which they feature, using the index word search of the dictionary “EIJIRO”. I
proceeded to divide the compounds according to type. For noun-noun compounds in which
the possessive marker is not used despite a human noun being in the modifying position,
I created three classes and divided the compounds accordingly: patient, apposition, and
others. The following is the result of this search and classification.
【child】
[child + N2]
[patient] 29 examples
child abduction 子どもの誘拐、child abuse 幼児虐待、子ども虐待、児童虐待、
child allowance 児童手当、child care 小児看護、child destruction 堕胎、child custody
監護権、子ども監護、child discipline しつけ、child education 幼児［児童］教
育、child exploitation 児童労働搾取、child guidance 児童相談、child maltreatment
児 童 の 虐 待［ 不 当 な 扱 い ］
、child management 育 児、child minder 子 守、child
molestation 子どもに対する性的虐待［性的いたずら］
、幼児［児童］虐待、child
molester 子どもにいたずらをする痴漢、幼児［児童］虐待者、child murder 子ど
もの殺害、child neglect 育児怠慢［放棄］
、child predator 子どもを食い物にする
人、child protection 児童の保護、child benefit 児童手当、child credit 児童控除◆児
童手当として税金から控除される金額、child benefit 児童手当、child slavery 児
童労働虐待、児童奴隷、child support【名 -1】
（子どもの）養育費、育児給付【名
-2】チャイルドサポート、育児支援、child study 児童研究、child welfare 児童
（厚生）福祉、child prostitution 子ども買春、児童買春、child sex 子どもとの性交、
チャイルド・セックス、
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Toshihiro Umehara
[apposition]　12 examples
child actor 子 役、child bride 幼 な 妻、child genius 天 才 児、child phenomenon 神
童、child prodigy 神 童、 天 才 児、child soldier 少 年 兵、child star 子 役 ス タ ー、
child wonder 天才児、child worker 未成年労働者、child laborer 児童労働者、child
prostitute 子どもの売春婦、child wife 子どものような若い妻、幼な妻
[others]　20 examples
[N2 (is for) N1]（5）　8 examples
child bank 子 ど も 銀 行、child dentistry 小 児 歯 科、child health 小 児 保 健、child
psychiatrist 児 童 精 神 科 医、child psychiatry 児 童 精 神 医 学、child psychology 児
童 心理学、child seat（自動車の）チャイルドシート◆【標準英語】car seat、cf.
passenger seat、child surgery 小児外科
[N1 + intransitive verb convert substantive 自動詞転換名詞 ]　4 examples
child death 児童死亡、child fight 子どものけんか、child labor 児童就労、児童労働、
child development 子ども［児童］の発育［成長］
[N1 + state noun 状態名詞 ]　5 examples
child malnutrition 子 ど も の 栄 養 失 調［ 不 良 ］、child nutrition 小 児 栄 養、child
poverty 子どもの飢餓、child autism 小児自閉症、child hygiene 児童衛生
[miscellaneous]　3 examples
child memories《one's ～》子どものころの思い出、child population 年少人口、
child pornography 児童ポルノ、子どもを使ったポルノ
The number of examples of child’s+N2 is fewer than that of child+N2, and most examples
of child’s+N2 consist of those meaning ‘N2 for children’.
[child’s+N2]　17 examples
child's book on penmanship 子どもの習字の本、child's charter 児童憲章、child's
computer 子ども用コンピュータ、child's future 子どもの将来、child's identification tag
迷子札、child's insurance 子供保険、child's mental equipment 子どもの精神的能力、
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A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
child's mind 子供心、child's misbehavior 子どもの非行、child's nurse ばあや【同】
nanny、child's part 遺産の子どもの取り分、child's play やさしい事、朝飯前の事、
child's porcelain bath 小児用磁器浴器、child's room 子ども部屋、child's schooling
子どもの教育、child's welfare 子どもの幸福、child's world 子どもの世界
The number of examples of children+N2 is quite limited, and each example has an
equivalent with a possessive marker.
[children + N2]　4 examples
children hospital 小児病院 (cf. children’s hospital)、children insurance 幼年保険 ( cf.
子供保険 child's insurance) 、children market 子ども市場、children song わらべの
歌 (cf. children’s song)
We can find relatively many examples for children’s+N2.
[children’s + N2]　59 examples
children's advocates 児 童 擁 護 家、children's allowance 児 童 手 当 (cf. child allowance)、
children's bank こ ど も 銀 行 (cf. child bank)、children's bicycle 子 ど も 用 自 転 車、
children's book 児童図書 (cf. child's book on penmanship 子どもの習字の本 )、children's
bookstore 子 ど も 向 け の 書 店、children's bureau 児 童 局、children's charter 児 童 憲
章 (cf. child's charter)、children's clothing 子供服、children's comic 子ども向け漫画、
children's complaint 子どもがかかる病気、children's dentist 小児歯科医 child dentistry
小児歯科、children's department 児童部、children's diseases 小児病、children's doctor
小児科医、children's dosage 小児薬用量、children's edition 児童版、children's fight
子どもたちのけんか、children's film 子ども向けの映画、children's future 子ども
たちの未来 (cf. child's future 子どもの将来 )、children's gear 子ども用具、children's
hall 児童会館、children's hat 子供帽、children's home 養護施設、children's hospital
小 児 科 医 院、 小 児 病 院、children's hour 子 ど も の 時 間、children's house 児 童
館、children's institution 児童養護施設、children's language 幼児言葉、幼児言語、
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Toshihiro Umehara
children's librarian 児童図書室長、children's library 児童図書館、children's literature
児童文学、children's magazine 少年雑誌、children's museum 子ども向けの博物館、
children's nurse 保育士、children's officer 児童担当官、children's paradise 子どもの
天国、children's park 児童公園、children's pension 児童年金、children's play 児童劇
(cf. child's play やさしい事、朝飯前の事 )、children's playground 児童遊園、児童公
園、children's playroom 遊戯室、children's pool 子ども用プール、children's program
子ども番組、children's quarrel 子どもの口げんか、children's room 児童室、子ども
部屋、子ども室、children's scooter 子ども用片足スクーター、children's shop 子ど
も用品専門店、children's slide 子ども用すべり台、children's song わらべ歌、童謡、
children's surgery 小児外科、children's tablet 小児用錠剤、children's term 幼児言葉、
children's ticket 子どもの切符、children's troubles 小児病、子どもの悩み、children's
use 小児用、children's version 子ども用の版、children's ward 小児病棟、children's
writer 子ども向けの本の作家、児童書作家
【woman】
[woman + N2]
[patient]　5 examples
woman beater（恋人・妻など）女性を殴る男性、woman chaser 女たらし、女の
尻を追い回す男、woman hater 女嫌い【名】<→woman-hater>、woman hunter ウ
ーマン・ハンター、woman liberation ウーマンリブ
[apposition]　25 examples
woman announcer 女性アナウンサー、woman cabinet member 女性閣僚、woman
constable 女 性 警 官、woman customer 女 性 客、 婦 人 客、woman doctor 女 医、
woman driver 女 性 運 転 手、woman executive 女 性 の 重 役、woman friend 女 友
達、woman lawyer 女性弁護士、woman mayor 女性市長、woman member of the
Diet 女性国会議員、woman motorist 女性ドライバー、woman novelist 女流作家、
woman pearl diver 真珠採りの海女、woman political heavyweight 有力な女性政治
家、woman politician 女性の政治家、
《複》women politicians、woman president 女
性大統領、woman reporter 婦人記者、woman robber 女盗賊、woman smoker 女性
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A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
の喫煙者、たばこを吸う女性、woman student 女子学生、woman teacher 女性教員、
woman visitor 女性客、woman worker 女性労働者、woman writer 女流作家
[others]　4 examples
woman body【名】<→woman-body>　女性、woman power 女性パワー、woman
suffrage 婦人参政権、woman year【名】<→woman-year> 女性年
In the case of woman, too, a few belong to [others] and most of them belong to [apposition].
Next I explore compounds featuring the word student, which is quite often used without a
possessive marker even when it occupies N1 position.
【student】
[student + N2]
[patient]　11 examples
student adviser 学生のカウンセラー、student aid 学費援助、学生援護、学生扶助、
student assistant 学生アドバイザー、student comprehensive insurance 学生総合保
険、student counselor 学生のカウンセラー、student grant 奨学金、student guidance
学生指導、student identification card 学生証、student intake 学生［生徒］の受け入
れ人数、student mobilization 学徒動員、student regulations 生徒心得
[apposition]　17 examples
student activist 学生活動家、student advisee 指導学生、student apprentice 実習生、
student athlete【 名 】<→student-athlete>【名】スポ ー ツ 学 生、 学 生 運 動 選 手、
student companion 学友、student delegation 学生代表団、student demonstrators デモ
を行う学生たち、student engineer 見習い機関士、student extremist 過激派学生、
student hookers 学生売春婦、student interpreter 通訳研修生、見習通訳官、student
member 学生会員、student nurse 看護学生、見習い看護師、看護実習生、student
teacher 教育実習生、教生、student vet 獣医学生、student volunteer 学生ボランテ
ィア、student worker 勤労学生
[others]　45 examples
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Toshihiro Umehara
[s-v]　18 examples
student achievement 生 徒 の 成 績、student activism 学 生 運 動、student apathy ス
チ ュ ー デ ン ト・ ア パ シ ー、student assembly 学 生 集 会、student assessment 学
生 に よ る 教 師 の 評 価、student association 学 生 団 体、student campaign 学 生 運
動、student demonstration 学生デモ、student evaluation 学生による教師の評価、
student government 生 徒 会、 学 生 自 治 体、student movement 学 生 運 動、student
participation 学 生 参 加、student registration certificate 在 学 証 明 書、student strike
学 生 の ス ト ラ イ キ、student subscription 学 割 購 読、student tour 学 生 の 旅 行、
student union 学生会館、学生自治会、学友会、student uprising 学生暴動
[N2 ( is for) N1]　18 examples
student body 全学生、学生総数、学生全体、学生組織、学生団体、学生たち
の 自 治 会、student card 学 生 証、student commuter pass 通 学 定 期（ 券 ）
、student
cooperative 大学の生協、student council 学生自治会、生徒会、student fare 学生割
student loan 奨学金、学生ローン、
引運賃、student lamp 読書用ランプ、
学資ローン、
student magazine 学生雑誌、student manual 学生便覧、student newspaper 学生新聞、
student paper 学生新聞、student record 指導要録、学生の記録、student residence
学 生 寮、 寄 宿 舎、student supply 学 用 品、student visa 学 生 用 ビ ザ、student
yearbook 卒業アルバム、卒業記念アルバム、student bursary 奨学金
［miscellaneous]　9 examples
student affairs 学務、student affairs office 学生課、student attitudes toward learning/
study、学生の学習意識、student days《one's ～》学生時代、student fees 授業料、
student life 学生生活、student meeting 学生大会、student power スチューデントパ
ワー、student slang 学生スラング、student tuition 学生の授業料
In the case of compounds featuring student, those of the format student+N2 outnumber
the other types greatly. This combination lacks a possessive marker, despite the fact that
student is a human noun.　There are few occurrences of possessive markers being used for
compounds featuring student.
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A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
[student’s + N2]　7 examples
student's application 願書、student's card 学生帯出券、student's fees 授業料、student's
handbook 生徒手帳、student's meeting 生徒会、student's ticket 学生帯出券、student's
wear 学生服
[students’ + N2]　9 examples
students' association 学友会、students' convention 学生大会、students' guardians 学生
の保護者、students' hall 学生会館、学生ホール、students' off-campus activities 学
生の校外活動、students' quarter 学生街、students’ self-government association 学生
自治会、students’ slang 学生用語、students' union shop 生協売店
With this data we are able to examine the validity of Taylor’s arguments. The total number
of the examples of non-possessive N1+N2 of combinations featuring either child, woman
or student is 168. Out of these, 55 can be classified as patient, and 54 as apposition. These
two categories comprise 65 % of the total number of compounds. In addition to these two
categories, occurrences of ‘N2 [is for] N1’ are relatively large in number. These amount to
26 cases and comprise 15% of the total. In order to clarify the formation of non-possessive
animate N1+N2 compounds, we need to take into consideration the existence of categories
other than patient and apposition, although they do not necessarily prohibit the use of -’s
exclusively. Taylor’s arguments are more convincing when we consider other categories for
non-possessive animate N1+N2 compounds, such as ‘N2 ( is for) N1’ .
As to the question of presence or non-presence of a possessive marker, a few more problems
should be brought into discussion. I investigated compounds with the word baby as N1 as
these tend to exclude possessive markers even though baby is a human noun.
The compounds which have the word baby as N1 without a possessive marker such as baby
food, baby boy, baby boom and baby carriage are large in number and amount to more
than 130, whereas the number of examples with a possessive marker such as baby’s bottle,
baby’s cradle and baby’s diaper is only ten. The reason why these compounds tend not to
－ 305 －
Toshihiro Umehara
use a possessive marker despite baby being a human noun has something to do with the fact
that the pronoun it and the relative pronoun which are often used to refer to a baby, as in the
following examples.
The baby had been abandoned by its mother.
(Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary)
She kissed the baby which was in its mother’s arms.
(Genius English Japanese Dictionary)
This means that the word baby, though it is primarily an animate noun, is sometimes not
treated as such. In this respect, the diagram of Gender Class set by Quirk et al in CGEL
serves as a useful reference.（6）
GENDER CLASS
personal
EXAMPLE
(a) male
(b) female
(c) dual
brother
sister
doctor
(d) common
baby
(e) collective
family
nonpersonal
inanimate
(g) higher
female animal
(h) lower
animal
(i) inanimate
who-he
who-she
who-he/she
who-he/she/it
｛ which-it
which-it
｝
｛ who-they
｝
bull
which-he/it
｛ (who)-he
｝
cow
｛ (who)-she
ant
box
which-it
｛ (he/she)
which-it
animate
(f) higher
male animal
PRONOUN
COREFERRENCE
which-it
｝
｝
In this Gender Class diagram, the higher an item goes up, the higher the degree of being
animate goes up, accordingly the higher the ratio of the use of a possessive marker goes up.
Baby like infant and child belongs to Common Gender which stands rather low among the
class of Personal. CGEL explains Common Gender as follows.（7）
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A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
Common gender nouns are intermediate between personal and non-personal. The wide
selection of pronouns (who/which-he/she/it) should not be understood to mean that all
these are possible for all nouns in all contexts. A mother is not likely to refer to her baby
or child as it, but such non-personal reference may well be preferred by somebody who is
emotionally unrelated to the child or wishes to generalize across sex distinctions in scientific
contexts:
A child learns to speak the language of its environment.
So, someone who does not belong to a family of a particular baby does not refer to the baby
as he/she but as it, which means the baby is not treated as a personal noun but as a nonpersonal noun. Likewise, the baby in baby carriage, baby food and baby sitter is not a baby
in your family, but a baby in general, so it is treated as a non-personal noun and therefore
does not have a possessive marker.
In contrast to baby, the word ship, which is originally a non-personal noun, often can be
treated as a personal noun and the pronoun she is used for the word and a possessive marker
is often attached to it when it forms a compound.
ship's cabin
船室
vs.
passenger room
客室
ship's cargo
船荷
vs.
air cargo
航空貨物
ship's captain
船長
vs.
aircraft pilot
航空機のパイロット
ship's crew
船の乗組員
vs.
air crew
航空機搭乗員
ship's papers
船舶書類
vs.
car papers
車両書類
ship's doctor
船医
vs.
house doctor
家庭医
ship's light
船灯
vs.
car lighting
車両照明
However, you can find quite a few examples of compounds featuring ship that lack a
possessive marker, as in the following examples, and it is difficult to find a clear principle
on which form should be used. There are cases in which both forms are used, such as in
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Toshihiro Umehara
ship’s cargo, ship cargo.
ship aeroplane 艦載機、ship airplane 艦上機、ship agent 船舶代理業者、ship berth 停泊所、
ship bill 船員名簿、ship cargo 船荷、ship carpenter 船大工、水主頭、ship broker 船舶
仲買人、船舶仲立人、ship freight 船荷 …………
The item which stands just below common gender in Quirk’s diagram is collective gender.
Nearly 50 collective nouns are listed in CGEL. Constituents of each collective noun are
human as in staff, audience etc., so non-native speakers of English might presume that they
could find many examples with a genitive marker, but, contrary to any such expectations,
there are few such instances to be found. The following are findings from EIJIRO.
[committee]
The number of instances with a possessive marker: 1
(the committee’s decision)
The number of instances without a possessive marker: 17
(committee chairman, committee hearing, committee majority, committee meeting………… )
[audience]
The number of instances with a possessive marker: 1
(audience’s attention)
The number of instances without a possessive marker: 22
(audience analysis, audience chamber, audience effect………… )
[class]
The number of instances with a possessive marker: o
The number of instances without a possessive marker: more than 100
(class accent, class action, class bully………… )
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A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
[crew]
The number of instances with a possessive marker: 3
(crew’s accommodation, crew’s quarters, crew’s room)
The number of instances without a possessive marker: 15
(crew cabin, crew compartment, crew cut, crew neck………… )
[family]
The number of instances with a possessive marker: 5
(family's chief provider, family's immediate needs, family's income, family's main
breadwinner, family's stronghold)
The number of instances without a possessive marker: more than 100
(family Bible, family affair, family allowance……… )
[staff]
The number of instances with a possessive marker: 2
(staff’s dining room, staff’s lobby)
The number of instances without a possessive marker: 72
(staff administration, staff agency, staff anteroom ………… )
As you have seen in the above six examples, there are few compounds featuring an N1
collective noun together with a possessive marker, whereas there is an overwhelming
preponderance of compounds without a possessive marker attached.
As for animals and other non-human beings, the N1+N2 type far outnumbers the type of ‘N1
with a possessive marker + N2’, and the latter are mostly conventional phrases or clich s.
－ 309 －
Toshihiro Umehara
[bull]
The number of instances with a possessive marker: 5
(bull’s dust, bull’s eye, bull’s horns, bull’s nose, bull’s wool)
The number of instances without a possessive marker: more than 100
(bull market, bull pen………… )
[cow]
The number of instances with a possessive marker: 2
(cow’s lung, cow’s milk)
The number of instances without a possessive marker: 50
(bull market, bull pen………… )
[ant]
The number of instances with a possessive marker: 1
(ant’s pants)
The number of instances without a possessive marker: 18
(ant farm, ant fly………… )
So far the focus of the discussion has been on how the existence or non-existence of a
possessive marker affects the formation of noun-noun compounds, but in order to clarify
the mechanism of the formation, we must ask to what extent the N1 being singular or plural
affects compound formation.
In exploring this issue, the important factor is the generic character of N1. Taylor quotes
Lieber (1988) and maintains that “the modifying noun must receive a generic interpretation.
It is for this reason that the modifying nominal lacks a determiner, and usually a marker of
plurality as well.” （8） Take the expression a cat lover for example, the cat of N1 does not
mean a single cat but cats in general, in other words, the cat without a plural marker or the
－ 310 －
A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
cat in a singular forms plays a generic or typological role. The expressions of this type are
many in numbers and they serve as one of the important sources in English word formation.
Here are some examples of this.
dog food, car engine, bus stop, car park, bicycle path, horse race, seat belt, desk work,
king maker, student body, table tennis, girl student, girl friend, book review, library
book, ball park, eye bank, body shop, heart disease, heart donor, school visit
It is possible to appreciate the frequency of this variety just by counting the number of
compounds incorporating the word car. These alone are more than 200 in number, as can be
seen in some in the following examples.
car accessory 車の付属品、car accident 車の［乗用車］事故、car alarm 車の盗難防
止警報器、car antenna 車のアンテナ、car arrangement 組立、car art カー・アート◆
車にさまざまなデザインを施す芸術、car axle 車の駆動軸、car bag 細長い衣裳か
ばん、car barn 車庫、car bed カーベッド、車用の携帯幼児ベッド、幼児用携帯ベ
ッド、car belt 安全ベルト、car boat 貨車船　………………………………………….
The examples above are of compounds that consist of a non-personal N1 without a
possessive marker. As we have seen earlier, even if N1 is a personal noun, in some cases
there is no possessive marker or a marker of plurality. There are three varieties of such
compounds. The first one is compounds in which N1 plays the role of patient (a child
molester), the second one is those in which N1 has a relation of apposition to N2 (a woman
doctor) and the third one is those which have a construction of ‘N2 [is for] N1’ (a guest
room). N1 of this type take a seemingly singular form, but actually represent generic
meanings. Among these three, the last one needs careful treatment. If a room for children
(N2 [is for] N1) is a children’s room, why isn’t a room for guests（N2 [is for] N1) a guests’
room instead of a guest room? Taylor shows an interesting view on this
(9)
. According to
his view, whether a possessive marker is attached to N1 or not depends upon that extent to
－ 311 －
Toshihiro Umehara
which N1 has a referential function. Where N1, the modifying noun, is referential enough
to invoke a specific instance or instances, a possessive marker is necessary; where it does
not signify a specific instance or instances but a type, a possessive marker is not used. Take
driver’s seat and passenger seat for instance. A car is usually driven by a single person,
so the driver is specific. Therefore a singular noun with a possessive marker is used for
N1. As for passenger seat, passengers can be anybody, so they are not specific or definite
people but rather general or indefinite people. Therefore, a singular indefinite noun without
a possessive marker is used for N1. In the case of children’s room and guest room, too, we
can think the same way as above. The children’s room of a house is meant for those specific
individuals who are the children of the family living there, whereas the guest room is meant
for anybody who happens to be staying at the house, so the N1 of the former has a specific
nature and that of the latter has a generic nature. Thus they become children’s room and
guest room. Likewise one can understand the differences between an insider’s report and
an insider report by taking into consideration whether they are specific or generic. In the
case of an insider’s report one can think of the existence of a particular person who reports,
but in the case of an insider report, the insider lacks the referentiality of being a particular
person and can in fact be any person; therefore, an insider report is merely a report only
insiders can make.
Compared to non-possessive singular N1+N2 compounds, non-possessive plural N1+N2
compounds are far less in number, but not rare at all as you can see in the following
examples.
sports apparel 運 動 着、sports cap 運 動 帽、sports column ス ポ ー ツ 欄、greetings
telegram 祝 電、arms buildup 軍 備 増 強、arms cut 軍 縮、 軍 備 縮 小、 軍 備 削 減、
arms depot 兵器集積所、goods agent 運送屋、goods distribution 商品流通、goods
locomotive 貨物機関車、accounts book 会計帳簿、accounts clerk 記録係、簿記係、
accounts section 会計課、wages account 賃金勘定、wages bargain 賃金交渉、wages
sheet 給与支払簿、futures contract 先物契約、先物取引、futures market 先物市場、
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A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
定期取引、futures product 先物商品、sales agency 販売代理店、sales amount 売上
高、売買高、sales manager 営業部長、販売部長（cf. bank manager 銀行支店長）
、
salesclerk【名】店員、販売係、売り子【変化】salesclerks、
【分節】sales・clerk、
systems analysis シ ス テ ム 分 析、systems designer シ ス テ ム 設 計 者、applications
programmer《コ》アプリケーション開発者、communications satellite 通信衛星 ,
admissions committee 入学審査委員会、admissions office（大学の）入学事務局、
入試担当事務局、admissions test 入学試験、customs officer 税関検査官、税関吏、
税関職員、customs forms 税関用紙類、damages suit 損害賠償の訴訟、damages
case 損害賠償請求訴訟、trousers length スラックス丈、scissors jump 正面跳び、
scissors kick【1】
《水泳》あおり足【2】
《サッカー》シザーズキック、オーバー
ヘッドキック、data bank データバンク、ladies room 女性用公衆トイレ、savings
account 預金、普通預金（口座）
、savings box 貯金箱
Many of the nouns which belong to this category as N1 are used in the plural form when
they are used not as a part of a compound but as a single word, the meanings of which are
different from those when they are used as a singular word, like arm vs. arms, good vs.
goods, custom vs. customs, damage vs. damages, etc.
Next, I investigate N1 with possessive markers to discuss the problems concerning singular
and plural. Since possessive markers are generally attached to human nouns, when you
think of a single person, the marker is attached to a singular noun and when you think of
plural persons, the marker is attached to a plural noun. In the case of a driver’s license,
it is basically thought of as an individual license, so a singular noun with a possessive
marker (a driver’s license) is used, whereas in the case of a children’s doctor, since a
doctor is supposed to examine more than one child, a plural noun with a possessive marker
(a children’s doctor) is used. Likewise, in the case of a driver’s seat, only one person is
usually thought of as a driver, so a singular noun with a possessive marker (a driver’s seat)
is used, whereas in the case of a women’s college, in which not just one but many female
students study, a plural noun with a possessive a marker (a women’s college) is used.
－ 313 －
Toshihiro Umehara
These are relatively clear cut examples in which it is not so difficult to guess the correct
form to use, but the following example is not so. In the case of a driver’s seat, only one
person can be thought of as a driver sitting on the seat, so naturally a singular N1 is an
appropriate form. If that is so, then since passengers are generally more than one person,
their seat should be called a passengers’ seat, but actually it is not. The appropriate form is
a passenger seat. The reason why a singular form without a possessive marker is used in
this case is that those who sit on passenger seat are not specific people but indefinite people
or passengers in general. So a singular N1 without a possessive marker which represents a
generic meaning is used. Although there exists the form of ‘singular N1 with a possessive
marker + N2’ (passenger’s seat) as in the following example, this is not a compound but a
prenominal possessive.
"I am sorry, sir, this seat is that passenger's (seat)."
"This passenger's seat is broken. Can we move him to another one?"（10）
The next instance (from Taylor, p.310) also needs interpreting whether it is specific or
generic.
Valuable {collector items/collector’s items} have been stolen.
According to Taylor, collector’s items invoke the idea of those that an individual person
has collected, whereas collector items, where the generic N1 without a possessive marker
is used, are just items that can be collected in a general sense. Since collecting items is
primarily considered to be an individual act, collector’s items appears to be more commonly
used than collector items, and is treated as reputable usage in dictionaries such as Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English and Collins COBUILD. The compound collector items
can hardly ever be found in dictionaries, and even the British National Corpus has failed
to show any instance of this. The corpus, however, has shown instances, albeit just four, of
－ 314 －
A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
collectors item, as follows.
collectors item
Only 4 solutions found for this query
C9H 1696 BURNS Black Bison bass, 1962-'64, collectors item, recent refret, good
condition, offers.
C9H 1849 GIBSON Mercury amp and cab, and tremolo, classic '60s collectors item,
freshly overhauled, £295 ono.
C9H 1962 MARSHALL small logo Mk2 100 watt amp and slope cab, collectors item,
£420.
K1M 3167 5 cars were found, including a collectors item, a Ford Escort Mexico and an
Escort Cabriolet.
The reason why these plural forms are used is that more than one collector is considered
to exist in case items to be collected are different.　As you can see in the above examples,
whether a singular form is to be used or a plural form is to be used is decided by whether
a speaker thinks of a single person or plural persons when he speaks. The same principle
applies to the choice between a women’s magazine and a woman’s magazine. The plural
form is generally accepted because a magazine is usually intended for multiple readers, but
if you think that a magazine is bought and read by an individual reader, not by a group of
people, the singular form is also possible.
Thus, in the formation of a noun with a possessive marker and noun compound, we can
conclude that what matters is not only the question of being animate or non-animate, but
the question of a singular or a plural as in a women’s magazine and a woman’s magazine. In
other words, what matters is the question of thinking of an individual person or more than
one person when one speaks, and also the question of N1 being a specific or generic (or
indefinite) as in children’s room and guest room.
－ 315 －
Toshihiro Umehara
What we have discussed so far is the formation of those noun-noun compounds in which
N1 is a singular or a plural with a possessive marker and in which N1 is a singular or a
plural without a possessive marker. In these compounds, all the fundamental principles
on the formation of noun-noun compounds are included, but two other forms of nounnoun compounds are morphologically possible as well. One is an amalgamated type like
menswear, and the other is a hyphen-united type like student-athlete. These should be
investigated by paying attention to the fluidity of noun-noun compounds.
The forms of noun-noun compounds are generally decided according to the fundamental
principles of their formation as have been discussed. However, these are not absolute
principles, for there are cases where multiple forms of noun-noun compounds exist despite
the same meaning. The following are some examples of these.
Examples regarding a possessive marker
a. Examples regarding existence or nonexistence of a possessive marker
butcher’s knife / butcher-knife / butcher knife
（肉切り包丁）
children’s hospital / children hospital
（小児病院）
teacher’s college / teachers college
（教員養成大学）
child’s insurance / children insurance
（子供保険）
children’s song / children song （わらべの歌）
children's allowance / child allowance
（児童手当）
children's bank / child bank （こども銀行）
ship’s cargo / ship cargo
（船荷）
duck’s egg / duck egg
（アヒルの卵）
sheep’s liver / sheep liver
（羊の肝臓）
hen’s egg / hen egg
（鶏卵）
sheep’s wool / sheep wool
（羊毛）
－ 316 －
A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
b. Examples regarding the position of a possessive marker
teacher’s club / teachers’ club
（教員クラブ）
Examples regarding difference between singular and plural
complaints box / complaint box
（投書箱）
suggestions box / suggestion box / suggestion-box （投書箱）
Examples regarding the existence or nonexistence of space between N1 and N2, and the
hyphenated unification of N1 and N2
child birth / child-birth / childbirth
（出産）
school boy / schoolboy
（男子生徒〔小中学校の〕
）
girl friend / girlfriend
（ガールフレンド）
baby sitter / baby-sitter / babysitter
（ベビーシッター）
men’s wear / menswear
（男子服）
The above examples are cited from EIJIRO. The following examples are from Taylor
(p.306)
boy’s shoes / boys’ shoes / (boy’s shoes)
（男児用靴）
girls dresses / girls’ dresses
（少女服）
ladies fashions / ladies’ fashions
（婦人向けファッション）
Students’ Union / Students Union
（学友会）
magistrates’ court / magistrate’s court / magistrates court （治安判事裁判所）
Jews’ harp / Jew’s harp
（ジューズハープ）
trade-union / trades-union /trade’s union
（労働組合）
collector’s items / collectors’ items / collector item （蒐集品）
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As you can see, the majority of the above examples consist of those about existence or
nonexistence of a possessive marker, for the formation of noun-noun compounds often starts
from N1 with a possessive marker. Take a butcher-knife and a butcher knife for example,
it is evident that they originate from a butcher’s knife. The Oxford English Dictionary
explains the usage of the compound as follows.
butcher's knife,
also butcher-knife, a particular kind of knife used by butchers; also, any large, strongbladed knife of many uses;
According to this definition, the primary meaning of this compound is ‘a particular kind of
knife used by butchers’ and the secondary meaning is ‘any large strong-bladed knife like the
knife used by butchers’. From semantic development of the compound, it can be interpreted
in the following way. First it meant a particular kind of knife used by a particular butcher,
and as many butchers came to use it, butcher’s knife came to mean a particular kind of knife
used by butchers in general, and then it also came to mean any large strong-bladed knife
like the knife used by butchers. Morphologically, first a possessive marker which represents
specific nature attached itself to a singular noun (butcher) and thus a butcher’s knife came
to existence, and then, as its specific nature faded away and it came to mean the knife used
by butchers in general, or any large strong-bladed knife like the knife used by butchers, a
possessive marker which represents specific nature disappeared and instead a hyphenated
form of butcher-knife came into existence. Similarly, a butcher knife, the singular form
which has neither a possessive marker nor a hyphen and thus represents generic nature, also
came to existence. The same semantic development could be said to apply to collector’s
items / collectors’ items / collector items. Since collecting items is originally an individual
act, collector’s items, a singular form with a possessive marker, came to exist first, then
collectors’ items, the form of representing items collected by more than one person,
followed it and finally collector items, the form of representing collected items in general,
came to exist.
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A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
Thus, the process of the dropping of a possessive marker is the process of transition from
referentiality of an expression to non-referentiality or from its specific nature to its generic
or typological nature. In addition to the above examples, what represents this process of
transition symbolically is the expression Molotov cocktail.（11） This is a petrol bomb used
against Russian tanks which invaded Finland and was named after V. M. Molotov, then
Russian foreign minister. The expression was used with a possessive marker about in 1940,
but gradually it came to mean petrol bombs in general, then it dropped its possessive marker
and Molotov cocktail came to be used widely meaning a petrol bomb in general and became
an idiom.
Morphologically, what appears at the last stage of this transition from being specific to being
generic are expressions like tradesman / menswear / babysitter / boyfriend, girlfriend /
childbirth in which N1 and N2 are united completely without leaving any space between N1
and N2. The first two examples are the united form of N1 and N2 in which the apostrophe
component of the ‘apostrophe’s’ has been dropped, leaving only s. The last four examples
are the united form in which even s has dropped and no trace of a possessive marker can be
found.
So far we have discussed morphological possibilities of noun-noun compounds and the
mechanisms behind the process of their formation. Now I would like to sum up the
discussion and draw a conclusion.
Morphologically, noun-noun compounds are divided into possessive compounds (driver’s
license) and non-possessive compounds (tennis elbow). These two are not entirely
independent from each other, but they have close relations with each other. The only
difference between them is the existence or non existence of a possessive marker. When
N1 is an animate noun, a possessive marker is necessary, and when N1 is inanimate, a
possessive marker disappears. However, this is only a general principle, for even if N1
is an animate noun, there are some cases in which possessive markers are not used. They
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Toshihiro Umehara
are cases in which the relationship between N1 and N2 is patient (a child molester), or
apposition (a woman doctor), or ‘N2 [is for] N1’ (student fare). N1 usually receives
generic nature in these cases. Possessive compounds are divided into a singular possessive
compound and a plural possessive compound. The form selected depends upon the nature
of N1; when N1 supposes singularity, a singular form (a driver’s license = a license for a
driver) is used, whereas when N1 supposes plurality, a plural form (a women’s doctor = a
doctor for women) is used. In addition, when N1 supposes a generic or indefinite person, a
singular non-possessive compound (a guest room) is used. The relationship of N1 between
a plural possessive compound and a generic non-possessive compound is subtle in that their
meanings can overlap. For example, students’ union and student union both mean a union
for students. In addition, even a singular possessive compound and a singular non-possessive
compound can co-exist. Taylor points out that he even comes across the expression a
driver license as well as a driver’s license.（12） Aside from the question of which is more
commonly used, it can be said that, as the demonstrative and specific nature of a compound
becomes weak and typological and generic nature becomes strong, a possessive marker
tends to fall away, and there is a stronger tendency for customary possessive compounds
to shift to non-possessive compounds. The typical example of this is the transition from
Molotov’s cocktail to Molotov cocktail, but customary forces are also strong, so both can coexist like butcher’s knife vs. butcher knife and driver’s license vs. driver license, and there is
even a case in which an old form like child’s play has become an idiomatic expression and
has not shifted to a non-possessive compound.
I would like to conclude that although we can see general tendencies and principles on the
formation of noun-noun compounds, taking into consideration their fluctuating nature and
customary elements, it must be said that ascertaining definitive principles for the formation
of noun-noun compounds is a challenging task.
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A Study of the Formation of Noun-Noun Compounds in English
NOTES
（1） John R. Taylor ‘Possessives in English, an Exploration in Cognitive Grammar,’ p.
301, 1996, Oxford University Press
（2） Tsuyoshi Oishi (1996) “Morphology” (Modern English Linguistics series, Vol.4)
p.79,
（3） Sydney Greenbaum and Randolph Quirk(1990), ‘A Student’s Grammar of the
English Language’ p. 104
（4） Taylor, ibid. p. 303 (1985)
（5） Based upon Namiki’s classification. Muneyasu Namiki, (1985), “Word Formation,
‘New Grammar Book series’ Vol. 2” p. 88,”
（6） Quirk, et al. ‘ Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language,’ p. 314,
Longman
（7） Quirk, et al. ibid. p. 316
（8） Taylor, ibid. p. 303
（9） Taylor, ibid. p. 309
（10）Example sentences provided by Ms. Kristie Sage, lecturer of Komazawa University
in Tokyo
（11）Taylor, ibid. p. 311.
（12）Taylor, ibid. p. 304
Dictionaries used for this paper
OED: The Oxford English Dictionary on Compact Disk, Second Edition, Oxford, 1992
RHUD: Random House Unabridged Dictionary. Second Edition, CD-ROM Version
Random House, 1997
Webster: Webster’s Third New International Dictionary Unabridged; Merriam- Webster
Inc, 1999
Readers Plus, CD-ROM Version, Kenkyusha, 2000
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Toshihiro Umehara
Random House English Japanese Dictionary, CD-ROM Version、Shogakukan, 1998
Super Daijirin, Sanseidou, CD-ROM Version、1996
Eijirou, 2nd Version, Alc, 2005
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, CD-ROM Version、Oxford, 2006
Genius English Japanese Dictionary, CD-ROM Version、Taishukan, 2005
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English UPDATED EDITION, 2006
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