（プリンストン大学） 講演：翻訳で何が失われるか。

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第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
What!will!be!lost!in!translation?!–!A!cognitive5linguistic!analysis.!
!
Seiichi!Makino!
!
Keywords!
Content'Based! Instruction,! extensive! reading,! formality,! grammar'translation! intensive! readibng,!
method,!metaphor,!modality,!noda,!number,!persons,!shift,!tense,!!styles,!translation,!writing!systems!
!
!
1.!!!Introduction.!
!!!!!Translation! is! a! way! to! transfer! the! Original* Language! (OL)! to! the! Target* Language! (TL)! for! the!
native!speaker/reader!of!TL,!so!that!he!or!she!can!understand!whatever!has!been!spoken!or!written!in!
OL.! ! OL! and! TL! can! be! any! two! languages! including! two! dialects! (such! as! Okinawa! dialect! and! Tokyo!
dialect)! or! two! diachronic! stages! (such! as! Old! Japanese! and! Modern! Japanese)! of! one! and! the! same!
language.!!!
!!!!!When!OL!is!translated!to!TL!the!translator!is!usually!not!a!native!speaker/writer!of!OL!but!a!person!
whose! TL! proficiency! is! superior! because! ultimately! the! translator! has! to! be! highly! sophisticated! in!
his/her!own!language.!!Translation!should!be!relatively!easy!if!OL*and!TL!are!typologically!close!as!in!
the! case! of! translation! between! Korean! and! Japanese.! However,! if! OL! and! TL! are! typologically! or!!
historically! not! related! as! in! the! case! of! Japanese! and! English,! translation! becomes! relatively! harder.!
The! degree! of! difficulty! also! depends! on! the! genre! of! the! OL! text! to! be! translated.! Scientific,!
social'scientific,!and!academic!work!is!known!to!be!relatively!easier!than!literary!work.!!In!this!paper!I!
will!use!literary!works!''!especially!novels!''!which!are!the!hardest!genre!to!translate.!My!objective!of!
this!paper!is!to!show!that!translation!misses!something!cognitively!important!in!the!OL!even!if!a!given!
translation!is!of!high!quality!in!terms!of!skills!and!artisticity.!But!what!shouldn’t!be!misunderstood!is!
that! I! have! no! intention! whatsoever! of! belittling! the! value! and! existence! of! translation! itself.! ! On! the!
contrary,! I! am! well! aware! that! work! of! translation! ranging! from! scientific! literature,! philosophy,!
religions!down!to!literature!has!made!unfathomable!contribution!to!knowledge!of!Japanese!people!and!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
modernization!process!of!Japan,!as!discussed!in!Maruyama!and!Kato!(1998).!Rather!my!research!will!
focus!on!what!will!be!lost!in!translation!regardless!of!the!translator’s!accurate!and!skillful!work:!!More!
specifically,!I!will!address!the!following!two!questions.!(1)!When!is!it!relatively!easy!to!detect!what!has!
been! lost! in! translation?! ! Or! conversely,! when! is! it! relatively! hard! to! detect! what! has! been! lost! in!
translation?!!(2)!How!does!awareness!of!loss!of!translation!lead!to!deeper!understanding!of!the!original!
work?!!(3)!What!are!some!of!the!crucial!implication!of!my!findings!from!the!first!questions?!
!
2.!!!Phonetic!Loss!in!Translation.!
251.!!Translation!of!poetry.!
!!!!!Phonetic!inventory!of!each!language!differs!from!language!to!language.!No!two!languages!or!for!that!
matter!no!two!dialects!share!exactly!the!same!phonetic!inventory.!Roughly!speaking,!Japanese!has!five!
vowels!and!twelve!consonants,!whereas!English!has!twenty!consonants!and!twelve!vowels.!And!sounds!
are! arranged! in! each! language! according! to! its! own! accentual/tonal! and! phonotactic! rules,! producing!
quite! different! acoustic! effects.! It! is! quite! natural! that! sound! is! almost! totally! lost! in! translation.!!
Translation! of! poetry! makes! the! most! effective! use! of! sound! inventory! of! the! poet’s! language,! and!
therefore,! has! been! regarded! hardest.! In! spite! of! such! enormous! challenge! there! are! a! surprising!
number!of!Western!poetries!have!been!translated!into!Japanese.!!Look!at!one!particular!translation!of!
poetry!called!“Chanson!de!l’automn”!(Autumn!Song)!(1866)!by!Paul!Verlaine.!The!English!translations!
are!by!Peter!Low,!and!the!Japnese!ones!are!by!Bin!Ueda!(
Ex.!1.!
Les!sanglots!longs! !
!!
!
Des!violons! !
!!!!!
!
!
!
De!l’automn!
!
!
!
!
Blessent!mon!cœur!!!!!!!
!
!
!
D’une!langueur! ! !!!!!
!
!
!
Monotone.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
!
!
Tout!suffocant!!
!
!
!
!
Et!blême,!quand!! !!!!!
!
!
!
Sonne!l’heure,!!
!!!!!
!!
!
The!long!sobs!
!
!
!of!autumn’s!
!
!
violins! !
!
!
wound!my!heart!
!
!
with!monotonous!
!
!
!Languor.!!
!
!
Suffocating
!
!
!
and!pallid,!when!
!
!
the!clock!strikes,!
)and!Daigaku!Horiguchi!(
!!
!
(Aki!no!hi!no)!!
(Aki!kaze!no)!
!
!
(vioron!no)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(vioron!no)!
!
!!
(tameiki!no)!
(fushi!nagaki!susuri!naki)!
!
!
(mi!ni!shimite)!
(mobo!uki!kanashimi!ni)!
!
!
!
(hitaburu!ni)!
(waga!kokoro)
!!
!
(ura'ganashi.)!!!
(kizu!tsukuru.)
!
!
!
(kane!no!oto!ni)!
(toki!no!kane)
!!
!
(mune!futagi)!!!!!!!!! (nari!izureba)!
!!
!
).!
!
!
!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
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!
!
Je!me!souviens!!
!!!!
!
!
!
Des!jours!anciens!! !!!!
!
!
!
Et!je!pleure;!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
!
!
!
Et!je!m’en!vais!!
!!!
!
!
!
Au!vent!mauvais!! !!!
! !
Qui!m’emporte!!
!!
!
!
!
Deçà,!delà,!!
!!!
!
!
!
Pareil!à!la!!
!!!
!
!
!
Feuille!morte.! ! !
!
!
!
!
[Paul!Verlaine]!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
!
I!remember!!!!!!
!
!
the!days!long!past!
!
!
and!I!weep.!
!
!
(iro!kaete)!
(setsunaku!mo!mune!ni!semari)
!!
! !
!
(namida!gumu)!!!!!!!!(omoi!zo!izuru)
!
!
!
(sugishi!hi!no)!!(koshi!kata!ni)
!
!
!
(omoide!ya.)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(namida!wa!waku.)!
And!I!set!off!
!
!
in!the!rough!wind
!
!
!that!carries!me!
!
!
Hither!and!thither!
!
!
like!a!dead!
!
!
!leaf.!
!
!
!
!
!
(geni!ware!wa)!!(ochiba!naranu)
!
!
!
(uraburete)!!
(mi!o!ba!yaru)!
!
!
(koko!kashiko)!!!!!!!!!!(ware!mo)!
!
!
!
(sadame!naku)!!! (kanata!konata)!
!
!
(tobi!chirafu)!!!!
(fuki'makure!yo)
!
!
(ochiba!kana)!!!!!
(saka'kaze!yo)
!
[tr.!by!Peter!low]!
[tr.!by!Bin!Ueda]!!!!!![tr.!by!Daigaku!Horiguchi]
!
!
!
!
!!!!!The!translation!by!Bin!Ueda!(1905)!has!been!most!famous!and!recited!for!many!years.!!Both!Ueda!
and!Horiguchi!made!ultimate!efforts!to!transfer!the!sounds!of!the!original!poem!filled!with!French!nasal!
sounds! and! “langueur”! (languor)! using! semi'classical! Japanese.! But! the! acoustic! impression! of! the!
original!poem!and!its!translations!are!quite!apart.!!Verlaine’s!poem!creates!acoustic!impression!close!to!
classical! music! of! Claude! Debussy! (1862'1918)! or! Maurice! Ravel! (1875'1932),! but! the! Japanese!
translation!reminds!me!of!traditional!Japanese!music.!!
!
252.!!Translation!of!Onomatopoeia.!
!!!!!It! is! well! known! that! Japanese! is! rich! in! sound! symbolisms! in! the! form! of! phenomimes* (
giseigo),! phenomimes! (
! gitaigo),! and! psychomimes! (
!
! gitaigo).! All! languages! have!
phonomimes!or!direct!phonetic!representations!of!actual!sounds!in!every!day!life,!such!as!the!English!
“bang”,! “bowwaw”,! “cock'a'doodle'do”! and! “meow”.! English! phonomimes! are! normally! considered!
children’s! language! and! are! not! fully! integrated! into! adult! language.! In! Japanese,! however,! not! only!
phonomimes! but! also! phenomimes! (phonetic! representations! of! phenomena! perceptible! by!
non'auditory! senses)! and! psychomimes! (phonetic! representations! of! human! psychological! states)! are!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
integral!parts!of!adult!spoken!and!written!Japanese.!The!following!example!is!taken!from!a!picture!book!
called! “Sen* to* Chihiro* no* Kami9kakushi”! (Spirited* Away)! written! under! the! supervision! of! Hayao!
Miyazaki,!a!noted!director!and!animator!of!many!anime*feature!films.!The!underlined!parts!are!sound!
symbolisms.!My!own!translation!should!show!how!difficult!it!is!to!translate!into!English.!!
!
Ex.!2.!
!
Chihiro!ga!komatte!iru!to,!Bandai!no!yoko!ni!suut!to!ano!kamen!no!otoko!ga!arawaremashita.!Kamen!no!
otoko!wa!Chihiro!ni!mukatte!ojigi!o!shimasu.!Chihiro!mo!tsurarete,!pekori.!Atma!o!sageru!to,!otoko!wa!
sugata!o!keshimashita.!Suru!to!doo!deshoo.!Satsu!ga!ichimai!fuwari!to!ukiagari!Chihiro!no!hoo!e!tonde!
kita!de!wa!arimasen!ka.!
(When!Chihiro!didn’t!know!what!to!do,!the!Faceless!Man!showed!up!gliding!into!the!side!of!the!
watcher’s!seat.!The!Faceless!Man!bowed!to!Chihiro,!who!in!turn!bobbed!her!head.!And!the!man!was!
gone.!!What!do!you!think!happened!then?!!Lo!and!behold!a!bill!started!to!float!up!lightly!and!flew!
towards!Chihiro!)!
(2001:68'69)
!24,!
!
!
!!!!!Unlike!regular!words!in!which!connection!between!sound!and!meaning!is!arbitrary,!sound!
symbolisms!show!non'arbitrary!connection!between!sound!and!its!meaning.!The!meanings!of!the!three!
sound!symbolisms!in!Ex.2!!are!“quietly”!for!suut*to,!“bobing!her!head”!for!pekori!and!“floating!up!lightly”!!
for!fuwari*to.!The!non'sound!symbolical!versions!for!these!are!“shizuka!ni”!!(quietly),!!“kyuu!ni!atama!o!
ichido!sageru”!(suddenly!lower!one’s!head)!and!“karuku!ukiagaru”!(float!up!lightly).!Semantically!the!
sound!symbolical!versions!can!express!a!phenomenon!more!directly!than!the!non'sound!symbolical!
versions.!2!
!
253.!!!Puns!–!Word!Plays.!!(Share!(
))
!
!!!!To!create!a!humorous!effect!we!can!produce!word!plays!in!any!language!by!using!homophonous!
words.!!Naturally!such!puns!are!bound!to!be!lost!in!translation.!!!
25351.!Homophonic!Puns!!(Dooon!o!tsukatta!share!(
))
Ex.3.
a.!!
Tai*ni!iki'tai.!!(I!want!to!go!to!Thailand.!)!
!!!!!!!![The!first!and!the!second!tai*mean!“red!snapper”!and!“want!to”,!respectively.]
b.!
Sukii!ga!suki!da!!!!(I!like!skiing).!!
!!!!!![The!first!sukii*means!“skii”!but!the!second!suki*means!“like”]!
c.!
Zen!wa!zenzen!wakarimasen.!!(I!don’t!understand!Zen!at!all.!!)!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
!!!!!![The!first!zen!means!“Zen!Buddhism”,!and!the!second!zenzen!means!“not!at!all”]!
d.!!
Tsuukin'densha!de!tsuukin!shite!imasu.!!(I!am!commuting!by!painfully!!
!!!!!crowded!train.)!
!!!!![The!first!tsuu!means!“painful”!and!the!second!tsuu!means!“commute”]!
e.!
Ima!wa!fukyoo!de!kurashi!ga!kurai.!(Due!to!economic!depression!our!life!!
!!!!is!dark.)!
!!!![The!first!and!the!second!kura'!is!a!part!of!words!kurashi!“life”and!kurai!“dark”,!respectively.]!
!
25352.!Pivot!word!(Kakekotoba!(
))!
!!!!!In!Japanese!tanka!(
),!a!5'7'5'7'7!syllable!poem,!a!word!or!series!of!syllables!take!on!double!
meaning.!Let!me!explain!this!using!Ex.!4.The!pivot!word!is!furu!!which!means!either!“time!lapses“!or!“it!
rains”.!The!first!meaning!goes!with!the!preceding!part!of!itazura*ni*waga!mi*yo*ni!“I!just!spent!
heedlessly”and!the!second!meaning!goes!with!the!following!phrase!nagameseshi*ma*ni!“while!long!rain!
fell”.!On!top!of!it!nagame!has!two!meanings,!that!is,!“a!long!rain”(naga'ame)!!and!“pensive!
gazing”(nagame).!!The!translator!Laurel!Rodd!has!transferred!the!original!poem!marvelously!well!into!
English,!but!it!is!impossible!for!her!to!keep!the!original!spatial!arrangement!of!the!pivot!word.!
Ex.!4!
!!
Hana!no!iro!wa!
!
the!colors!of!the!
! Utsuri!ni!keri!na !!!!!
blossoms!have!faded!and!passed!
!
Itazura!ni !!!!!!!!!!!! !
!as!heedlessly!!!!!I!
!!!!!!!Wagami!yo!ni!furu!!!!!
squandered*my*days!in!pensive!
!! Nagame!seshi!ma!ni!!!!!
!gazing!!!and!the!long!rains!fell!
Ono!no!Komachi’s!poem!from!Kokin!Wakashuu!Vol.2!Spring!Songs.!(
!
)!Translated!by!Laurel!R.!Rodd!(1981:80)!)!
)
000
!
3.!!Visual!Loss!in!Translation.!!!!!
!3'1.!!!Choice!of!Four!Writing!Systems!(Hiragana,!Katakana,!Chinese!characters!and!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!Romanization)!
!!!!!One! of! the! salient! characteristics! of! the! Japanese! language! is! that! it! has! four! writing! systems,!
including! Romanization.! One! has! to! be! very! careful! to! characterize! a! linguistic! feature! as! unique! to! a!
particular!language,!but!the!four'way!choice!available!to!Japanese!writers!is!almost!definitively!unique!
to!the!Japanese!language.!And!more!importantly!the!choice!reflects!the!way!the!writer!views!what!he!or!
she! is! writing.! Whatever! is! represented! by! hiragana! is! usually! a! Japanese! origin! word! (called! wago)!
with! kun'reading! (Japanese! reading)! and! whatever! is! represented! by! katakana! is! usually! a! word!
borrowed!from!an!Indo'European!language.! 3.!Chinese!characters!(kanji)!are!used!to!represent!a!noun,!
a! stem! of! an! adjective! or! a! verb,! and! are! never! used! to! represent! enclitic! particles,! such! as! subject!
marker!ga,!object!marker!o,!direction!marker!ni,!and!so!forth.!!Hiragana*is!a!set!of!characters!that!was!
established!some!time!in!the!Heian!Period!through!simplification!of!Chinese!characters!and!originally!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
used!only!by!female!writers.!It!doesn’t!seem!accidental!that!every!hiragana*has!round!feminie!strokes.!!
Katakana!began!to!be!used!earlier!than!hiragana,!that!is,!in!Nara!Period!mostly!by!monks!who!needed!
to!insert!enclitic!particles!in!katakana!to!read!Chinese!writings!(called!kanbun
)!in!Japanese!way.!
Romanization!aside,!it!appears!that!there!is!psychological!hierarchy!among!the!three!writing!systems.!!
Imagine! a! co'centric! space.!Hiragana! is! located! at! the! innermost! circle! followed! by! Chinese! character!
and! katakana! in! that! order.! In! terms! of! psychological! notion! of! empathy,! it! is! easiest! for! a! Japanese!
writer/reader!to!empathize!with!whatever!is!represented!by!hiragana!and!hardest!to!empathize!with!
katakana!representation.!Chinese!characters!are!caught!in!the!middle!in!the!empathy*hierarchy.!In!short,!
in! Japanese! writing! representations! aren’t! mere! neutral! symbols.! Rather! the! choice! is! an! indicator! of!
the!writer’s!psychological!distance!towards!what!he!is!writing.!Look!at!the!following!poetry!written!by!
Masaki! Ikei.! He! could! have! written! this! poem! in! an! ordinary! mixture! of! hiragana! and! kanji! as! shown!
right! after! the! original! poem,! but! he! didn’t.! In! stead! he! wrote! it! entirely! in! hiragana.! Why?! My!
explanation!is!that!the!poet!Ikei!wanted!to!express!the!innermost!feeling!about!human!life!and!death!
not!by!semantics!alone,!but!by!formalism!of!hiragana,!because!it!is!most!adequate!for!expressing!deep!
emotion! about! inevitable! death.! Not! only! that.! The! poem! effectively! uses! the! traditional! prosodic!
features!created!by!alternation!of!5!and!7!syllables.!!Such!visual!and!phonetic!intricacies!are!inevitably!
lost!in!translation.!
Ex.!5!
!
(Masaki!Ikei!(
Sleeping!Traveler))!
!
!
)!(2009)!
/
/
!!!
(Quietly)!taken!from!his!anthology!called
/
/
/
/
A!
/
/
/
/
/
/
!
!
Mukai!no!seki!ga!aite!iru/sukoshi!hekonde/nukumatte!iru/dare!ka!suwatte!ita!!n!da!na/keredomo!ima!
wa!nai!dare!ka/watashi!o!mitsumete!ita!n!da!na/nemuri!tsuzukete!ita!watashi/yume!mi'tsuzukete!ita!
watashi/sotto!mitsumete!ita!n!da!na/densha!wa!tsugi!no!eki!ni!tsuki/watashi!mo!sotto!seki!o!o!!tatsu/!
sukoshi!hekonde!iru!seki!ni/kesa!mo!honobono!hi!ga!atari.!
!
(A!seat!in!front!of!me!is!empty/a!small!hollow!left!behind/still!warm/someone!must!have!been!sitting!
there/someone!who!isn’t!here!any!longer/gazing!at!me/while!I!kept!sleeping/and!kept!dreaming!
/gazing!at!me!quietly/the!train!reached!the!next!station/I,!too,!leave!the!seat!quietly/the!seat!with!a!
small!hollow/is!getting!comfortably!warm!sunshine!again!this!morning)!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
!
The!following!example!is!taken!from!Murakami!Hruki’s!most!recent!novel!called!1Q84*where!a!
beautiful!girl!with!literary!talent!named!Fukaeri!who!was!raised!in!a!cult!group!can!hardly!understand!
Chinese'origin!words!and!Murakami!represented!those!words!in!katakana!–!the!script!that!is!the!most!
distant!from!Japanese!mind.!In!my!translation!I!have!italicized!the!two!Sino'Japanese!words,!but!the!
italics!should!give!wrong!perception!to!the!reader,!because!it!is!usually!for!emphasis!only.
Ex.!6!
!
!
!
!
!
Haruki!Murakami!(
)!1Q84!(2009:364)!!Vol.1))!
!
“Kishakaiken!ga!donna!mono!datta!ka!wa!shitteiru!ne.”!
“Kishakaiken”!to!Fukaeri!wa!hanpuku!shita.!
“Shinbun! ya! zasshisha! no! kaisha! ga! atsumatte,! danjoo! ni! suwatta! kimi! ni! ironna! shitsumon! o! suru.!
Shashin!mo!torareru.!Hyotto!shitara!terebi!mo!kuru!kamoshirenai.!Chuuryaku!“!
“Shitsumon!o!suru”!to!Fukaeri!wa!tazuneta.!
“Karera!ga!shitsumon!o!shi,!kimi!ga!sore!ni!henji!o!suru.”!
“Donna!shitsumon”!
!
(“You!know!what!press*interview!is!all!about?”!
!“Press*interview”!!Fukaeri!repeated.!
“News!paper!and!magazine!reporters!get!together!and!give!you!all!sorts!of!questions.!!
!They!will!take!your!picture.!And!TV!people!may!also!come.”!!'''!omitted!'''''!
!!”Giving*questions?”!Fukaeri!asked.!
“They!will!give!you!questions,!and!you!answer.”!
!”What!kind!of!questions?”!)
!(Haruki!Murakami!(2009:364)!!1Q84 Vol.!1!)!
!
!!!!!Ex.! 7! is! also! taken! from! Murakami’s! same! novel.! The! passage! is! Fukaeri’s! recorded! utterance.! The!
way! Fukaeri! talked! is! transcribed! by! hiragana* except! one! English! loan! word! “tape”! and! three!
Sino'origin!words!that!are!transcribed!by!katakana.!The!way!Murakami!used!scripts!shows!extremely!
feminine!Fukaeri!to!whom!Tengo,!a!young!editor,!is!strongly!attracted. Such!psychological!use!of!scripts!
is!bound!to!be!lost!in!English!translation.!
!
Ex.!7!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
Haruki!Murakami!(ibid:534)!Vol.1)!
!
Tegami!o!kakeru!to!ii!n!da!kedo!nigatena!node!teepu!ni!fukikomu.!Denwa!o!suru!yori!kocchi!no!hoo!ga!
raku!ni!hanaseru.!Denwa!wa!tachi'giki!shite!iru!ka!wakaranai.!Chotto!matte!mizu!o!nomu.!!
Sensei!wa!watashi!no!soosaku!negai!o!keisatsu!ni!dashita.!Shikashi!keisatsu!wa!ugoki'dasanai.!
!
(I!wish!I!could!write!a!letter,!but!I’m!not!good!at!it,!so!I!will!record!it!on!a!tape.!This!way!is!easier!than!
calling! you.! Someone! may! be! eavesdropping! my! telephone! conversation.! Just! a! second.,! let! me! drink!
water.!)!
!
!!!!!Ex.! 8! is! taken! from! Junichiro! Tanizaki’s! novel! Kagi* ((1956)! The* Key).! This! novel! caused! sensation!
because!it!dealt!with!old!couples’!sexual!life.!The!husband!was!56!years!old!and!his!wife,!45!years!old,!
and!both!kept!a!secret!diary,!and!the!reader!can!read!both!as!if!he!or!she!were!a!voyer.!The!wife’s!diary!
is! written! in! both!kanji*and!hiragana,! but! her! husband’s! in! both!kanji*and!katakana.! Why?! ! Tanaizaki!
must! have! wanted! to! contrast! male! scripts! and! female! scripts! to! express! sexuality! between! the! two!
people!in!terms!of!writing!scripts.!!The!translator!Howard!Hibbett!naturally!couldn’t!do!anything!about!
two! opposing! writing! scripts! in! his! translation.! But! the! reader! of! his! translation! misses! the! subtle!
cognitive!choice!by!the!original!writer.!
Ex.8!
……
!……!
Junichiro!Tanizaki!(
)!
1956)
The!Key
!
1!gatsu!hatsuka.!Kyoo!wa!ichinichi!zutsuu!ga!shite!iru.!Futsuka!yoi!to!iu!hodo!de!wa!naiga,!!kinoo!wa!
sukoshi!sugoshita!rashii.!….!Dandan!burandee!no!ryoo!ga!fuete!iku!no!o!Kimura!san!wa!shinpai!shite!iru.!
!
Today!my!head!ached!all!day!long.!I!wasn’t!quite!a!hangover,!though!I!must!have!had!a!little!too!much!
last! night.! Mr.! Kimura! seem! worried! about! my! drinking.! (Translated! by! Howard! Hibbett! (1960)! NY:!
Alfred.A.Knopf!)!
!
……
!
!
(Ibid)!
!
1!gatsu!28!nichi.!….!Kon’ya!totsuzen!tsuma!ga!jinjifusei!ni!natta.!Kimura!ga!kite,!yonin!de!shokutaku!o!
kakonde!iru!saichuu!ni!kanojo!ga!doko!ka!e!itte,!shibaraku!modotte!konai!node,!“Doo!nasutta!no!deshoo”!
to!Kimura!ga!ii!dashita.!
!
Tonight!Ikuko!fainted.!We!were!sitting!around!the!dinner!table!with!Kimura,!when!she!suddenly!got!up!
and!left!the!room.!She!didn’t!return,!and!Kimura!asked!if!she!might!be!ill.!(Ibid)!
!
3.2!!!Furigana!or!the!so5called!!Ruby (
).
!!!!!Furigana! is! smaller! hiraganas! or! katakanas! that! are! printed! next! to! kanji! or! kanji! compound!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
primarily!for!the!purpose!of!showing!its!pronunciation.!In!the!horizontal!text!furigana!is!placed!above!
the!character!and!in!the!traditional!vertical!text!it!is!placed!to!the!right!of!the!character.!!In!this!section!I!
will!deal!with!a!case!where!furigana!is!used!not!only!for!showing!the!original!pronunciation!of!a!foreign!
word,!but!also!for!defining!the!meaning!of!the!word!bilingually,!thus!creating!a!more!accurate! semantic!
representation.!!
!!!!!In!Ex.!9!,!a!quote!from!Yukio!Mishima’s!After*the*Banquet!(1960)!((Utage*no*ato!(
used!a!ruby!for!the!word!“minshuu”!(
))!Mishima!
)!translated!from!German!“Volk”!for!two!reasons.!One!reason!
is!that!he!wanted!to!reproduce!the!voice!of!Goering!through!utterance!of!a!Japanese!career!diplomat,!
and!the!other!is!that!Mishima!wanted!to!show!that!he!was!aware!of!the!semantic!difference!between!
“minshuu”! and! “Volk”.! ! The! translator! Donald! Keene! italicized! the! word! “people”,! but! the! italicized!
word! is! remarkably! different! from! the! original! ruby! version! in! terms! of! visual! effect! and! in! terms! of!
defamilializing!effect!(ika'sayoo!
).!
Ex.!9!
Volk!
(1960)
! !
!
“Suru! to! Geeringu! wa! niyari! to! shite,! imi! shinchoona! henji! o! shita.! ‘Wareware! wa! itsumo! minshuu!
(foruku)!to!tomo!ni!ari,!minshuu!(foruku)!no!ichi'in!de!aru.!
!
“At!this!Goering!grinned,!but!his!answer!was!profound.‘!We!are!always!at!one!with!the!people!and!part!
of!the!people.’”!
Translated!by!Donald!Keene (1963)!After*the*Banquet,!NY:!Alfred.A.Knopf)!
!
4.!!Translation!of!Dialects!in!the!Original!Work!555Loss!of!Socio5linguistic!and!Cultural!Matters!in!
Translation.!
!!!!!Language!isn’t!monolithic.!!It!has!always!many!regional!and!social!dialects!and!language!variations!
resulted! from! diaspora.! One! of! the! regional! dialects! is! often! chosen! for! political,! economical,!
geographical! reasons! as! the! common! language! for! a! nation'state.! ! In! Japanese! the! Tokyo! dialect! was!
promoted! to! the! “standard”! Japanese! by! Kazutoshi! Ueda! (
)
who! led! the! committee! for!!
National!Language!Policy!Agency!supported!by!Japanese!Educational!Ministry!of!the!Meiji!period.!The!
Standard! Language! (hyoojun9go! (
))! was! established! around! 1895.! After! the! War! the! term!
hyoojun9go! has! been! replaced! by! Common! Language! (kyootsuu9go! (
))! primarily! because! of!
psychologically!negative!implication!of!the!term!“standard”.!But!the!fact!remains!that!kyootsuu9go!has!
been!politically!selected!from!all!the!dialects.!Translation!is!normally!done!by!the!kyootsuu9go!of!the!!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
Target* Language.! 8.! But,! generally! speaking,! if! the! original! work! includes! a! dialect! spoken! by! the!
characters! as! in! Ex.10,! how! could! or! should! a! translator! deal! with! it?! ! Ex.! 10! is! taken! from! Junichiro!
Tanizaki’s! very! famous! novel! “Sasame! Yuki”! (
),! translated! as! Makioka* Sisters! by! Edward!
Seidensticker.!Tanizaki!was!a!native!speaker!of!the!Tokyo!dialect,!but!he!left!Tokyo!for!Kyoto!(and!later!
for!Kobe)!at!the!age!of!thirty'seven!after!the!Great!Earthquake!that!hit!the!Tokyo!area!in!1923.!In!1948!
he!completed!the!long!story!about!four!sisters!of!a!once!wealthy!family!in!Osaka.!In!the!story!the!four!
sisters!and!other!characters!speak!the!Osaka!dialect.!Seidensticker!didn’t!translate!the!Osaka!dialect!in!
the!original!work!into!an!American!dialect.!He!translated!the!Osaka!dialect!with!the!“standard”!English.!
But! translation! of! a! dialect! in! the! Original* Language! is! next! to! impossible,! because! stereotypes! and!
feelings!are!attached!to!the!dialect,!and!it!is!next!to!impossible!to!find!the!corresponding!dialect!in!the!
TL*!(i.e.,!English!in!this!context)!that!possesses!the!same!stereotypes!and!feelings.!!Therefore,!we!have!
to!say!that!cognitive!implication!attached!to!a!particular!dialect!used!in!the!OL!will!be!lost.!!
!
Ex.!10!
!
'''''''''
!
'''''''''
!
'''''
MB
!
'''''
!
!
!
MB
!
1943)!
!
!
“Naa,!koisan,!Yukiko'chan!no!hanashi,!mata!hitotsu!aru!nen!de”!
“Soo,!…..”!
“Itani'san!ga!motte!ki'yahatta!hanashi!nen!kedo!na,!….”!
“Soo….”!
“Sarariiman!ya!nen,!MB!Kagaku!Koogyoo!Gaisha!no!Shain!yate,!…..”!
“Nanbo!gurai!morote!ru!n!non”!
“Gekkyuu!ga!hyaku'nanajuu'en,!boonasu!o!irete!ni'hyaku'gojuu'en!gurai!ni!naru!nen.”!
“MB!Kagaku!Koogyoo!Gaisha!iu!tara,!Furansu'kei!no!kaisha!ya!nen!naa”!
!
‘Koi'san,!we!have!another!prospect!for!Yukiko.’!
‘Oh?’!
‘It!came!through!Itani’!
‘Oh?’!
‘The!man!works!in!an!office,!M.B.!Chemical!Industries,!Itani!says.’!
‘And!is!he!well!off?’!
‘He!makes!a!hundred!seventy!or!eighty!yen!a!month,!possibly!two!hundred!fifty!with!bonuses.’!
‘M.B.!Chemical!Industries!'''!a!French!company?’!
(Edward!Seidensticker! !(1993)!The*Makioka*Sisters,!!NY:!Alfred!A.!Knopf.)!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
5.!!!Non5auditory/Non5visual!Cognitive!Matters!that!will!be!lost!in!Translation.!
551.!!Metaphors.!
!!!!!The!term!metaphor!comes!from!a!Greek!compound!verb!μετά!(meta)!“between”!+!φέρω!(pherō),!“to!
bear”,! “to! carry”.! ! The! concept! of! metaphor! itself! is! actually! a! metaphorical! version! of! physical!
movement! of! ! “carrying! something! physically! between! A! and! B”.! ! The! metaphorical! “metaphor”! deals!
with!<A!transfer!of!A!to!B!via!human!cognition!in!such!a!way!that!A!is!less!directly!and!sometimes!more!
aesthetically!recognized!than!B.!>!Lakoff!and!Johnson!(1980)!referred!to!A!as!Source*Domain!(SD)!and!B!
as! Target*Domain! (TD).! ! There! are! basically! three! ways! in! which! SD! and! TD! are! connected.! First,! the!
connection!arises!through!universal!human!cognition!of!Analogy,!producing!simile!(Chokuyu!
metaphor! (In’yu!
)and!
).! In! this! case! SD* is! usually! the! theme! (and! often! the! subject)! and! TD! is! the!
predicate,!as!in!“Kimi!wa!akai!bara!(no!yoo)!da”!(You!are!(like)!a!red!rose).!!The!version!with!!“no!yoo”!
(“like”)!is!an!example!of!simile,!but!the!one!without!it!is!an!example!of!metaphor.!Secondly,!it!is!a!case!of!
the!so'called!personification.!Here!SD!cannot!usually!be!regarded!as!human,!but!in!this!case!the!subject!
SD! violates! the! semantic! agreement! rule! between! the! subject! and! the! predicate,! yielding! TD! which!
transforms!the!inanimate!object!to!an!animate!object,!as!in!“Sakana!ga!naite!iru”!(Fish!is!crying).!The!
cognitive! principle! is,! here! too,! analogy! between! a! non'human! object! and! a! human.! Thirdly,! the!
connection!between!SD!and!TD!occurs!when!our!mind!recognizes!spatial!contiguity!between!container!
and!content.!!In!other!words,!if!something!(typically!a!container!in!the!broad!sense)!is!spatially!close!to!
something!else!(typically!a!content*in!the!broad!sense)!then!we!can!use!only!the!container!to!refer!to!
the! content! by! not! mentioning! the! content,! if! the! focus! is! on! the! container! in! a! given! context,! as! in!
“Gurasu!o!aketa”!(Someone!emptied!the!content!of!the!glass).!!SD!and!TD*here!are!Container!+!Content!
and! Container,! respectively.! Such! metaphor! is! referred! to! as! metonymy.! Fourthly,! there! is! metaphor!
called!synecdoche!a!metaphor!based!on!cognition!of!a!member!of!super!ordinate!concept!as!SD!and!TD!
as! the! superordinate! concept.! Metonymy! and! synecdoche! are! so! close! that! some! scholars! don’t!
distinguish!between!the!two,!but!the!crucial!distinction!is!that!metonymy!involves!more!or!less!physical!
container! and! content,! but!synecdoche! involves! more! abstract! inclusion! relationship! between! the! two!
concepts.!Using!the!following!triangular!diagram,!Seto!(1995)!represented!the!three!kinds!of!metaphor!
showing!three!types!of!cognitive!principles!(spelled!in!capital!letters)!and!categories!of!metaphor!
!
!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!ANALOGY!!(Simile,!Metaphor,!Personification)
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
!
!
!!
!
!!!!!!!!!
!
!
!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!INCLUSION!!!(Synecdoche)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!CONTIGUITY!!(Metonymy)!
!
!!!!!Ex.!11!gives!examples!for!each!of!the!three!categories!of!metaphor.!Examples!are!categorized!into!(A)!
metaphors!that!will!not!be!lost!in!translation!and!(B)!metaphors!that!will!be!(almost)!lost!in!translation.!
Note!that!all!cases!of!personification!and!metonymy!will!not!be!lost!in!translation.!Even!when!some!of!
the!metaphors!are!lost!in!translation,!they!are!lost!not!for!intrinsic!reasons!but!for!cultural!reasons.!In!a!
nutshell,! metaphor! is! supported! by! basic! cognitive! principles! of! analogy,! inclusion! and! contiguity! and!
basically!shared!experience!and!is!universal!par*excellence.!!
Ex.11!
11−
Simile!!(Chokuyu!(
))!!
A.!!Cases!of!Not!Being!Lost!in!Translation.!!
a.!
!
Kanojo!wa!o'ningyoo!no!yoo!da.!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!(She!is!like!a!doll.)!
b.!
!
Jinsei!wa!tabi!no!yoo!!da.! !
!
!
!!!!(Life!is!like!a!journey.)!
c.!
! !
!!!!Ano!otoko!wa!hebi!no!yoo!da.!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!(That!man!is!like!a!snake.)!
d.!
!
Watashi'tachi!wa!morumotto!mitai!da.!!!!
!!!(We!are!like!guinea!pigs.)!
!
B.!Cases!of!Almost!Being!Lost!in!Translation.!!
a!.!
!
Akachan!no!te!wa!momiji!no!yoona!te!da.!
(?The!baby’s!hands!are!like!maple!leaves.)!
b.!!
!
Kare!wa!Kimura!Takuya!no!yoona!kao!o!shite!iru.!
{??He!looks!like!Takuya!Kimura.)!
!
!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
c.!
!
Sukyandaru!ga!imozuru!no!yooni!dete!kita.!
!(??Scandals!surfaced!like!runners!of!sweet!potatoes.)!
d.!
!
Dora!yaki!no!yoona!shokkan!da. !
!!!(??It!feels!like!a!pancake!when!you!eat!it.)!
!
1152!!Metaphor!!(Inyu!(
))!
A.!!Cases!of!Not!Being!Lost!in!Translation.!!
a.!
!
Kanojo!wa!ningyoo!da.!
!
!!!!
!!!!(She!is!a!doll.)!
b.!
!
Jinsei!wa!tabi!da.! !
!!!!
!!!!(Life!is!a!journey.)!
c.!
!
Ano!otoko!wa!hebi!da.!
!!!
!!!(That!man!is!a!snake.}!
d.!
!
Watashi'tachi!wa!morumotto!da.!
(We!are!guinea!pigs.)!
B.!!Cases!of!Being!Lost!in!Translation.!!
a.!
!
!!!!Boku!wa!kanazuchi!da.!
!
!!!(*I!am!a!hammer.!(=!I!cannot!swim!a!stroke.))!
b!.
!
!
Jikyuu!wa!suzume!no!namida!da.!
(*My!hourly!pay!is!sparrow’s!tears.!(=!My!pay!on!hourly!basis!is!just!so!little.!))!
c.!
!
Kanojo!no!kao!wa!noomen!da.
!!!!
!!!!*Her!face!is!a!Noh!mask.!(=Her!face!lacks!expression/?She!looks!like!wearing!a!mask.))!
d.!
!
Kare!wa!daikoku'bashira!da.!
!
!!!*He!is!the!central!pillar.!(!=!He!is!the!breadwinner).!
!
1153.!!Personification!(Gijinka!(
))!
Cases!of!Not!Being!Lost!in!Translation.!!
6
!
!!!Pari!ga!anata!o!maneite!iru.!
!(Paris!is!beckoning!(lit.inviting)!you.)!
b.!
!
Himawari!ga!kaze!no!naka!de!ojigi!o!shite!iru.!
!(Sunflowers!are!bowing!in!the!wind.)!
c.!
!
!Kono!ishi!wa!joohinna!kao!o!shite!iru.!
!!(This!stone!has!an!elegant!face.)!
d.!
!
Kono!yuwakashi!no!kuchi!wa!chiisa'sugiru.!
!!!(The!mouth!of!this!kettle!is!too!small.)!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
1154.!Synecdoche!!(Teiyu!(
)!or!Shinekudokii!(
)) !
A.!!Cases!of!Not!Being!Lost!in!Translation.!!
a.!!
!
Mainichi!bentoo!ni!yude'tamago!o!motte!ikimasu.!
(Every!day!I!bring!a!boiled!egg!for!lunch.)!
b.!
!
Hito!wa!pan!dake!de!ikiru!no!de!wa!nai. !
!!!(Man!doesn’t!live!by!bread!alone.)!
!
A.!!Cases!of!Almost!Being!Lost!in!Translation.!!
a.!
!
Nomi!ni!ikoo!ka.
!!!!!!
!!!!(Shall!we!go!for!a!drink?)!
b.!!
!
Shuumatsu!ni!Ueno!Kooen!ni!hana'mi!ni!itte!kita.!
!!!(*I!went!to!Ueno!Park!for!flower!viewing.!(=!I!went!to!Ueno!Park!for!cherry!blossom!viewing.))!
c.!
!
Tori!wa!amari!suki!ja!nai!n!da!yo.!!
!!!(*I!don’t!like!bird!so!much,!you!know.!(=!I!don’t!like!chicken!so!much,!you!know.))!
d.!!
!
Ban!go!han!wa!nanji!kara!desu!ka.
!
!!!(*What!time!is!cooked!rice?(!=!What!time!is!dinner?))!
!
1155.!!Metonymy! Kanyu!(
)!)!
A.!!!Cases!of!Not!Being!Lost!in!Translation.!!
a.!!
)!
!
Yakan!(no!o'yu!)!ga!futtoo'shite!iru.
!!
!!!!!(The!(hot!water!in!the)!kettle!is!boiling.)!
b.!!
!
Piano!(no!oto)!ga!kikoete!kuru.!
(I!can!hear!the!(sound!of!the)!piano.)!
c.!
!
Kaze!de!roosoku!(no!hi)!ga!kieta.!
!!!(The!wind!extinguished!the!(flame!of!the)!candle.)!
d.
!
Mootsuaruto!(no!ongaku)!o!kiku!no!ga!suki!da.!
!I!like!listening!to!(the!music!of)!Mozart.)!
e.
!
(Kinoo!Murakami!Haruki!(no!shoosetsu)!o!ni'satsu!yonda.!
!!!!!!Yesterday!I!read!Haruki!Murakami!for!the!first!time.!
f.![From!a!waitress!to!another!waitrss]!
!
Teeburu!roku!ban!no!hamu!sandoiichi!(o!tabete!iru!hito),!nanka!ochitsuki!ga!nai!ne.!
(The!(man!who!is!eating)!ham!sandwich!at!table!six!is!getting!restless.!(Taken!from!Fass!(1997))!!
!
B.!!Cases!of!Being!Lost!in!Translation.!!
a.!!
!
Jitensha!(no!taiya)!ga!14anko'shita. !
!!!!!(*The!bicycle!was!punctured.!(!=!The!bicycle!had!a!flat!tire.))!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
b.!
(
)
(Taken!from!Yamanashi!(1988))!
!!!!Donbui!(no!meshi)!ga!dekita!node,!sugu!sore!o!tabeta.!
!!!(!*The!bowl!was!ready,!so!I!ate!it!right!away.!(=!The!bowl!of!rice!was!ready,!so!I!ate!it!right!away.))!
!
!!!!Let’s!look!at!actual!translation!of!metaphors!that!appeared!in!a!novel.!Here!I!will!examine!translation!
of!Haruki!Murakami’s!After*Dark!(Translated!by!Jay!Rubin!in!2007)!(Afutaa*Daaku!!(
2004)).! As! predicted! by! directly! preceding! discussion,! all! the! creative! metaphors! included! in! Ex.12!
are!almost!verbatim!translatable!into!English.!!Generally!speaking!as!long!as!metaphor!in!the!Original*
Language!(OL)!does!not!include!culture'specific!ingredients!that!are!not!found!in!the!Target*Language!
(TL),!metaphor!won’t!be!lost!in!translation.!
Ex.!12!
6
ibid:!6)!
Shinkenna!kao!o!shite!yonde!iru!tokoro!o!miru!to,!katakurushii!naiyoo!no!hon!na!no!kamoshirenai.!!
Ichi'gyoo!ichi'gyoo!o!shikkari!to!kamishimete!iru!fun’iki!ga!aru.
!!!!(Judging!from!her!intent!expression,!the!book!might!contain!challenging!subject!matter.!Far!from!!
!!!!skimming,!she!seems!to!be!biting!off!and!chewing!it!one!line!at!a!time.!)!(ibid:!5)!
!
b.!!
!!
(ibid:!45)!
!!!Kaodachi!wa!akeppiroge!de,!nagai!aida!fuu’u!ni!sarasarete!kita!amagu!no!yooni,!gowa!gowa!!
!!to!shite!iru.!
Her!face!wears!an!open!expression,!but!the!skin!has!a!tough,!weathered!look,!like!long'used!!
!!!!!!!rainwear.)!(ibid:!31)!
!
c.!
(ibid:!126)!
!Mangetsu!no!hikari!ga!mujin!no!soogen!ni!sosogu!yooni,!terebi!no!akarui!bamen!ga!heya!no!naka!o!!
terashite!iru,!
!!!(Like!the!light!of!the!full!moon!pouring!down!on!an!uninhabited!grassland,!the!TV’s!bright!screen!
!!!illuminates!the!room.)!!(ibid:!83'83)!
!
d.!
!
(ibid:!155)!
!Yagate!Eri!no!kao!ni!futatabi!ugoki!ga!aru.!Hitai!ni!tomatta!chiisana!hamushi!o!oiharau!toki!no!yoona!!
!kinniku!no!hanshatekina!ugoki!da.!
!!!!!!!(Before!long!there!is!movement!in!Eri’s!face!again!'''!a!reflexive!twitching!of!the!flesh!of!one!cheek,!!
!!!!!!!as!!if!to!chase!away!a!tiny!fly!that!has!just!alighted!there.!)!!(ibid:!103)!
!
e.!!!
(ibid:!262)!
!!!!!!Yoru!no!saigo!no!yami!ga,!tokai!o!usugawa!no!yooni!tsutsu!n!de!iru.!
!!!!!(The!final!darkness!of!the!night!envelops!the!city!like!a!thin!skin.!)!!(ibid:!173)!
!
6!!!!!!Number!
!!!!!It! is! well! known! that! Japanese! is! one! of! the! languages! (such! as! Chinese! and! Korean)! that! don’t!
obligatorily! mark! singular,! plural! or! dual! distinctions! with! any! morpheme.! ! For! the! lack! of! number!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
marking!morphemes!there!are!no!rules!of!grammatical!agreement!between!the!number!assigned!to!the!
subject!and!its!corresponding!predicate.!!!!
!!!!!Let’s! look! at! the! most! famous! haiku! by! Matsuo! Basho! (
1644'1694)! which! is! provided!
below!as!Ex.13!with!its!seven!English!translations.!The!question!is!simple!but!crucial:!Is!kawazu!“frog”!
is!singular!or!plural?!!If!you!put!the!question!to!a!Japanese,!he!or!she!will!almost!unanimously!answer!
that!it!is!singular.!Some!people!may!argue!that!it!has!to!be!singular.!Such!interpretation!can!be!traced!
back!to!the!medieval!aesthetic!notion!of!wabi,!a!positive!aesthetic!principle!of!loneliness!that!developed!
in!Kamakura!(1185'1333)!and!Muromachi!(1333'1568)!eras!in!the!tradition!of!Zen!Buddhism!and!to!
another! equally! important! aesthetic! principle! of! rustiness! and! loneliness.! As! pointed! out! by! Ikegami!
(ibid:!159),!Lafcadio!Hearn!!(1850'1904),!who!became!a!naturalized!citizen!of!Japan!in!1896,!translated!
kawazu! as! plural! as! shown! in! Ex! (13).! ! The! translators! who! actually! used! a! singular! marker! “a”! are!
Donald!Keene,!Reginald!Blyth!and!Daisetsu!Suzuki!(
),!and!the!other!three!Beilenson,!!Kirkup!
and! Corman! translated! “kawazu”! without! using! “a”,! as! if! kawazu! were! perceived! as! an! uncountable!
noun'''!a!noun!which!is!indifferent!to!number!.!!
!Ex.!13!!!
古池や
か わ ず 飛び込む
水の音
The!ancient!pond!!
!!Old!pond!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Old!dark!sleepy!pool!!
a!frog!leaps!in!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!frogs!jump!in!!!!!!!quick!unexpected!frog!!!!!!!!
the!sound!of!water!!!!!!!!!!!!sound!of!water!!!!!goes!plop!!Watersplash.!!!!
(Donald!Keene)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(Lafcadio!Hearn)!!!(Peter!Beilenson)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!The!old!pond!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!Into!the!ancient!pond!!!!!!!old!pond!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!A!frog!jumps!in!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!A!frog!jumps! !
frog!leaping!
!!
!
!!!!!!The!sound!of!water!!!!!!!!!!!Water’s!sound!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!splash!
!
!
!!!!!!(Blyth)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(D.T.!Suzuki!鈴木大拙)!!!!!(Cid!Corman)!
!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Pond!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!frog!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!plop!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(James!Kirkup)!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!What!was!the!original!intention!of!Basho?!!Is!there!any!evidence!in!this!5'7'5!poem!that!he!actually!
saw!one!frog!or!more!than!one!frog?!!I!don’t!think!the!haiku!itself!offers!us!any!clue!as!to!singularity!or!
plurality,!but!that!doesn’t!mean!that!I!should!give!up.!!My!stubborn!curiosity!led!me!to!haiga!'''!!a!black!
and!white!painting!!to!which!a!haiku*poet!often!attaches!his!haiku!to!give!a!visual!context.!It!is!in!a!way!
amalgamation!of!verbal!and!visual!arts.!Basho!did!it!quite!often.!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!!!!!Basho!learned!an!art!of!drawing!haiga!from!Kyoroku!Morikawa!(
!1656'1715),!who!in!turn!
learned!how!to!compose!haiku!from!Basho.!According!to!Okada!(1972,!Haiga*#54'#56!and!explanation!
on! p.! 40)! the! haiku! itself! was! unmistakably! written! by! Basho! because! of! the! peculiar! style! of! his!
hiragana!“ya”!(
),!but!Okada!didn’t!say!for!sure!whether!or!not!the!haiga!was!drawn!by!Basho!himself,!
because! Basho! could! have! attached! his! haiku! to! Kyoroku’s! painting.! Either! way,! however,! Basho!
intended!to!express!a!single!frog.!!
Haiga（ A)!!
!
!
!
!!!!!Now! let’s! consider! an! equally! famous! Basho’s! haiku,! Ex! 14! and! its! two! haigas! (B)! and! (C)! that!
contradict!each!other!in!terms!of!the!number!of!crow.!!Basho!composed!this!haiku!at!the!age!of!37!!(in!
1681)!and!he!attached!it!to!his!Haiga!(B)!which!Otani!(1993!Vol.2,!49)!stated!that!not!Basho!but!some!
other! established! painter! has! drawn! [taken! from! Otani! (ed.! 1993:70'71)).! ! Contrary! to! our! intuitive!
interpretation! of! the! haiku! itself,! there! are! twenty'seven! crows! in! total,! twenty! flying! in! the! air! and!
seven! are! perched! on! the! withered! bough.! ! So! I! assumed! that! Basho! saw! many! crows! on! an! autumn!
evening.!!But!there!is!a!twist.!!!
Ex.!14!
枯枝に!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Autumn!evening!!!!!
からすのとまりたるや!!!!!!A!crow!has!perched!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
秋の暮!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!On!a!withered!bough!
(Blyth)
!
Haiga（ B） !
!
!
!
!!!!!Now!look!at!Ex.!15!which!Basho!composed!at!the!age!of!49!in!1693,!one!year!before!his!death.!As!you!
readily!notice,!this!haiku!is!slightly!different!from!Ex.!14.!The!auxiliary!verb!in!Ex.!14!was!taru!(<!tari,!
marker! of! completion! and! stativity)! but! it! was! now! replaced! by! keri,! an! auxiliary! verb! of! surprise! at!
what!one!has!noticed.!And!the!sentence'final!particle!ya!of!exclamation!in!Ex.!14!is!gone!in!Ex.!15.!Also!
to!be!noted!is!that!four!Chinese!characters!(
is,!!“aki”!(
)!used!in!Ex.!14!are!reduced!to!only!one,!that!
!autumn).!!In!other!words,!the!haiku!is!almost!entirely!represented!by!hiragana!(
)!
which! you! will! recall! is! used! to! express! the! innermost! human! feelings.! In! this! case! it! must! be! his!
loneliness! before! death.! ! The! surprising! part! is! that! Basho! attached! haiku! of! Ex.! 15! to! Kyoroku’s!
painting!in!which!a!solitary!crow!is!perched!on!a!withered!bough.!Basho!must!have!seen!himself!in!a!
lonely,!black!crow!at!the!end!of!an!autumn!day,!not!a!winter!day,!but!very!close!to!it.!The!auxiliary!verb!
keri*carries!Basho’s!exclamatory!voice!of!having!noticed!with!emotion!something!he!didn’t!or!couldn’t!
notice!13!years!back!at!the!age!of!37.!Twenty'seven!crows!are!now!one!crow!with!which!he!can!identify!
himself.!So!the!discrepancy!between!Ex.!14!and!Ex.!15!are!no!longer!contradiction.!Both!make!sense!in!
Basho’s!cognition!at!a!given!context!of!life.!!!
!
!
!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
Ex.!15.!
かれえだに!
からすのとまりけり!
秋のくれ!
!
Haiga!!(Ｃ ) !
!
!
!
After!all,!a!Japanese!noun!is!neutralized!in!terms!of!number.!My!analysis!of!Basho’s!Ex.!14!and!15!
dramatically! showed! that! a! given! noun! can! be! singularized! or! pluralized! depending! on! the! artistic!
impulse! of! the! poet.! To! use! Talmy’s! ! (2000)! term! individuation,! even! an! ordinary! countable! noun!
behaves!like!an!uncountable!noun!without!individuation.!!From!a!translator’s!perspective!it!is!entirely!
up!to!his!or!her!aesthetic!and!cognitive!judgment!to!put!frog!or!crow!into!a!singular!or!plural!noun!in!
the!target!language.!If!he!translates!“kawazu”!as!“a!frog”,!then!he!will!miss!the!plural!version!and!vice!
versa.! Notice,! however,! that! Kircup! and! Corman! cleverly! translated! into! “frog”! without! the! indefinite!
article! “a”! or! the! plural! suffix! “s”.! But! the! majority! of! haiku! translators! lose! sight! of! the! nature! of!
neutralized*number!in!haiku!and!other!poetic!discourse.!Ironically,+this+is+the+case+where+addition+of+“a”+or+
“s”+ reveals+ what+ is+ lost+ in+ translation.+ But+ the+ addtion+ is+ what+ is+ gained+ in+ translation+ from+ the+ English+
perspective.+
+
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
7.!!Shift!Phenomena!in!Discourse!
!!!!!In! this! section! I! will! discuss! shift! phenomena.! Shift! is! synchronic! change! from! an! unmarked!
grammatical! form! in! discourse! to! a! marked! grammatical! form! for! cognitive! reasons.! ! Usually! the!
pre'shift!form!and!the!post'shift!form!are!contrasted.!!I!will!focus!on!five!shifts.!They!are!(1)!number*
shift,!(2)!tense*shift,!(3)!formality*shift,!(4)!person*shift,!(i.e.,!shift!among!lst!,!2nd!and!3rd!persons)!and!(5)!
modality*shift!(especially,!shift!of!using!!or!not!using!an!involvement!marker!“noda”).!Because!Japanese!
is! full! of! such! shifts! they! will! be! lost! in! translation! into! Indo'European! languages! where! they! seldom!
occur,!and!the!loss!is!serious!due!to!its!cognitive!implication.!
+
7"1$$Number$Shift.$
!!!!!!In!previous!section!I!discussed!a!case!of!neutralized!number!in!Japanese!haiku.!In!this!section!I!will!
deal! with! shift! from! neutralized! number! to! plural! number! marked! by! a! suffix! –tachi,! a! non'default!
marker! that! is! optionally! chosen! by! the! Japanese! speaker/writer.! The! attachment! is! actually! not!
optional.! It! is! triggered! by! the! speaker/writer’s! cognition! that! he! or! she! has! empathetic! relationship!
with! someone! or! something! under! focus.! Simply! put,! 'tachi* marks! not! only! plurality! but! also!
psychological!notion!of!empathy.!
!!!!!!Ex.!16!is!a!quote!from!Haruki!Murakami’s!2009!novel!IQ84!(Vol.1!:!152)!.!In!this!passage!an!old!lady!
is!talking!about!butterflies!she!loves.!From![S1]!(=Sentence![1])!and![S2]!choo!(蝶!“butterfly”)!is!used!
without! the! number! marker,! but! it! shifts! to! its! number'marked! version! in! [S4]! and! shifted! back! to!
numberless!version!in!![S5].!The!shift!doesn’t!occur!abruptly!but!it!is!supported!by!foregoing!cues.![S2]!
and! [S4]! include! a! phrase! of! personification! “hitori! hitori”! (一人ひとり! ! “individually”）and! “kono!
hito'tachi!wa”!(このひとたちは!”these!people”),!respectively.!Jay!Rubin,!whose!translation!is!soon!to!be!
published,!must!have!realized!that!such!shift!in!number!in!Japanese!is!bound!to!be!lost!in!translation.!!
Ex.16
!
[1]!蝶に名前はつけません。[2]!名前がなくても、柄やかたちを見れば一人ひとり見分けられる。[3]!
それに蝶に名前をつけたところで、どうせほどなく死んでしまうのよ。[4]!このひとたちは、名前を
持たないただの束の間のお友だちなのです。[5]! 私は毎日ここにやって来て、蝶 た ち と会ってあい
さつをして、いろんな話をします。[6]!でも蝶は時が来れば黙ってどこかに消えていく。[7]!きっと
死んだのだと思うけど、探しても死骸が見つかることはありません。(村上春樹! (2009:152)! Vol.! 1!
『1Q84』)!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
[1]! Choo! ni! namae! wa! tsukemasen.! [2]! Namae! ga! nakute! mo,! gara! ya! katachi! o! mireba! hitori! hitori!
miwakerareru.![3]!Sore!ni!choo!ni!namae!o!tsuketa!tokoro!de,!doose!hodo!naku!shinde!shimau!no!yo.!
[4]!Kono!hito'tachi!wa,!namae!o!motanai!tada!no!tsukanuma!no!o'tomodachi!na!no!desu.![5]!Watashi!
wa!mainichi!koko!ni!yatte!kite,!choo5tachi!to!atte!aisatsu!o!shite,!ironna!hanashi!o!shimasu.![6]!Demo!
choo!wa!toki!ga!kureba!damatte!dokoka!ni!kiete!iku.![7]!Kitto!shinda!no!da!to!omou!kedo,!sagashitemo!
shigai!ga!mitsukaru!koto!wa!arimasen.!(Murakami!Haruki!IQ84!(Vol.1,!2009:!152))!
([1]! I! don’t! give! a! name! to! butterfly! (neutral).! [2]! I! can! identify! each! (Lit.! each! person)! butterfly! by!
looking!at!their!patterns!and!shapes.!![3]!And,!you!know,!even!if!I!give!butterfly!(neutral)!a!name!they!
will! die! very! soon.! [4]! They! (Lit.! These! people)! are! just! nameless! temporary! friends! of! mine.! [5]!
Everyday!I!come!here!and!greet!the!butterflies!(plural)!and!talk!with!them!on!all!sorts!of!topics.![6]!But!
butterfly!(neutral)!will!be!gone!when!the!time!comes.![7]!I!am!sure!they!have!died,!but!I!have!never!
found!their!bodies.!)!
!!!!!It!should!be!relatively!easy!to!empathize!with!a!living!creature!like!butterflies,!but!as!Ex.!17,!a!quote!
from!Google,!shows,!even!an!inanimate!object!like!a!stone!can!take!–tachi.!!Such!attachment,!however,!is!
hardly!acceptable!to!ordinary!people,!so!in!the!first!three!sentences!the!writer!takes!his!time!to!explain!
that! for! him! a! stone! is! a! jewel! with! individuality.! Until! he! reaches! [S8]! he! patiently! waits! to! use! the!
plural! marker.! ! The! last! sentence! [S9]! says! “What! is! more! important! is! how! we! feel! about! it”,! which,!
unintentionally!captures!the!essence!of!cognitive!linguistics.!
Ex.17!
[1]!私はその人が本当に大事にしている石!こそ宝石と呼ぶのがふさわしいと思っています。….![2]す
べての石は世界でたった一つのオリジナルです。[3]私達が１人１人違うように石も一つ一つ違いま
す。[4]是非出会いを楽しんで下さい。[5]石は原素化合物の結晶体です。[6]原素のまわりには電子
があって、その種類によって決まった数の電子がその回りをまわっています。[7]ということは、な
んらかのエネルギーがそこに存在していると思います。![8]しかし、それだけではこの石達の魅力は
測れないと思います。[9]大事なのはそれを感じる私達の心の方にあるのだと思います。!(Google)!
!
[1]!Watashi!wa!sono!hito!ga!hontoo!ni!daiji!ni!shite!iru!ishi koso!hooseki!to!yobu!no!ga!fusawashii!to!
omotte! imasu.! …! [2]! Subete! no! ishi! wa! sekai! de! tatta! hitotsu! no! originaru! desu.! [3]! Watashi'tachi! ga!
hitori! hitori! chigau! yoo! ni! ishi! mo! hitotsu! hitotsu! chigaimasu.! [4]! Zehi! deai! o! tanoshinde! kudasai.! [5]!
Ishi!wa!genso!kagoobutsu!no!kesshootai!desu.![6]!Genso!no!mawari!ni!wa!denshi!ga!atte,!sono!shurui!ni!
yotte!kimatta!kazu!no!denshi!ga!sono!mawari!o!mawatte!imasu.![7]!To!iu!koto!wa,!nanra!ka!no!enerugii!
ga!soko!ni!sonzai!shite!iru!to!omoimasu.![8]!Shikashi,!sore!dake!de!wa!kono!ishi5tachi!no!miryoku!wa!
hakarenai!to!omoimasu.![9]!Daijina!no!wa!sore!o!kanjiru!watashi'tachi!no!kokoro!no!hoo!ni!aru!no!da!to!
omoimasu.!(Google)!
!
([1]!I!think!stone!one!really!cares!about!is!worthy!of!being!called!a!gem.!…![2]Every!stone!is!an!unique!
and!original!stone!in!the!world.![3]Just!like!we!humans!are!different!individually,!stone! (singular)!too!
are!different!individually.![4]Be!sure!to!enjoy!your!encounter!with!them.!!…[5]!A! stone! (neutral)!is!a!
crystal! that! is! made! up! of! a! combination! of! chemical! elements.! [6]Around! each! element! exists! an!
electron,!and!depending!on!its!nature!a!fixed!number!of!electrons!are!circling!around!it.![7]That!means!
there! exists! some! kind! of! energy,! I! think.! [8]! But! with! such! explanation! alone! I! don’t! think! we! can!
measure!the!charm!of!stones!(plural).![9!]What!is!more!important!is!how!we!feel!about!it.!)!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
7"2$$Tense$Shift.$
!!!!!!!A!novel!which!deals!with!something!that!happened!to!someone!in!the!past!is!narrated!in!the!past!
tense.!But!in!a!Japanese!novel!the!default!tense!(i.e.,!the!past!tense)!can!shift!into!the!non'past!tense.!!
Since! around! the! late! 70’s! Japanese! linguists! have! kept! searching! for! reasons! why! such! tense! shift!
occurs!not!only!in!written!discourse!but!also!in!spoken!discourse.!!!
!!!!!!Before!I!submit!my!own!theory!on!tense!shift,!let!me!discuss!some!cognitive!notions!that!can!shed!
light! on! the! present! issue.! In! cognitive! linguistics! fore9grounding! and! back9grounding! information! in!
syntax! or! discourse! is! called! figure! and! ground,! respectively.! ! Almost! simultaneously! Talmy! (1978)!
distinguished! figure! vs.! ground! and! Hopper! (1979) distinguished! back9grounding! vs.! fore9grounding.!
Which!cognitive!path!to!take!has!beenassumed!to!be!totally!up!to!the!speaker/writer’s!cognitive!choice.!!
Both!linguists!used!linguistic!data!to!support!their!theory,!but!neither!of!them!adduced!an!example!of!
tense* shift.! Their! cognition'based! distinctions,! however,! can! explain! phenomena! of! tense* shift! in!
Japanese.! ! What! is! important! is! that! the! paired! concepts! are! not! postulated! as! a! pair! of! sharply!
distinguishable!categories.!As!with!other!linguistic!categories!we!are!dealing!here!with!continuum!from!
figure!to!ground,!ground!to!figure,!or!from!foreground!to!background!or!from!background!to!foreground.!!
!!!!!Surely! I! could! use! those! cognitive! categories! to! explain! Japanese! tense* shift,! but! I! would! like! to!
submit! my! theory! of! tense* shift! using! a! notion! of! eventness.! ! When! a! Japanese! novelist! writes! about!
something! that! occurred! in! the! past,! he! or! she! has! to! decide! whether! or! not! he! is! describing! it! as! an!
event,! be! it! physical! or! psychological.! A! described! even! is! usually! fore9grounded* information! and! a!
non'event! is! usually! back9grounded* information.! But! how! to! perceptually! grasp! a! given! situation! is!
entirely! up! to! the! writer.! The! writer! may! locate! anywhere! in! the! following! continuous! scale! of!
eventness.!!
!
That!is,!![!'!event!]!<'''''''''>![+!event].!!!
!
!!!!!Let! me! first! discuss! Ex.! 18,! a! passage! from! Yasunari! Kaweabata’s! Yama* no* Oto* ! (The* Sound* of* the*
Mountain)!translated!by!an!eminent!translator!Edward!Seidensticker.!The!underlined!predicates!in!the!
sentence! of! [S1],! [S2],! [S4],! [S5],! [S6]! and! [S7]! are! instances! of! back'grounded! information! which! the!
writer!categorized!as![−event],!whereas!the!rest!of!the!sentences!(i.e.,![S3]!and![S8]!through![S15]!)!are!
instances!of!different!degree!of!fore'grounded![
event]!!information.!This!passage!is!a!crucial!passage!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
in! this! long! novel! in! which! an! extraordinary! psycho'physical! event! suddenly! occurs! for! a! 62'year! old!
man! who! believed! he! heard! sound! of! mountain.! For! the! old! man! it! was! an! announcement! of!
approaching! death.! After! the! event! is! briefly! mentioned! in! [S3]! it! develops! exponentially! into! a!
full'fledged! event! towards! the! end! of! passage.! Every! sentence! or! every! clause! that! are! more! or! less!
[−event]!takes!the!non'past!tense.![−event]!is!used!to!describe!stative!situation. The!past!tense!use!in!
the!subordinate!clause!of!ato*de!(after)'clause!in!sentence![S12]!!is!a!default!case!where!it!is!mandatory!
to!use!past!tense!predicate.!Such!an!intricate!pattern!of!tense!shifts!in!this!passage!is!missing!entirely!in!
this!marvelous!translation!by!Seidensticker!solely!due!to!lack!of!cognitive!mechanism!which!expresses!
the!writer’s!perception!(or!construal,!to!use!cognitive'linguistic!term).!!
!
!!Ex.18!
[1]
[3]
[2]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
Yasunari!Kawabata!(
[15]
)!!The*Sound*of*the*Mountain
1954))!!!
!!!
[1]!Hachigatsu!no!tooka!mae!da!ga,!mushi!ga!naite!iru.![2]!Ko!no!ha!kara!ko!no!ha!e!yoytsuyu!no!ochiru!
rashii!oto!mo!kikoeru.![3]!Soo!shite,!futo!Shingo!ni!yama!no!oto!ga!kikoeta.![4]Kaze!wa!nai.![5]!Tsuki!wa!
mangetsu!ni!chikaku!akarui!ga,!shimeppoi!yaki!de,!koyama!no!ue!o!egaku!kigi!no!rinkaku!wa!boyakete!
iru.![6]!Shikashi,!kaze!ni!ugoite!wa!inai.![7]!Shingo!no!iru!rooka!no!shita!no!shida!no!ha!mo!ugoite!inai.!
[8]!Kamakura!no!iwayuru!yato!no!oku!de,!nami!ga!kikoeru!yoru!mo!aru!kara,!Shingo!wa!umi!no!oto!ka!
to!utagatta!ga, yahari!yama!no!oto!datta.![9]!Tooi!kaze!no!oto!ni!nite!iru!ga,!jinari!to!demo!iu!fukai!
sokojikara!ga!atta.![10]Jibun!no!atama!no!naka!ni!kikoeta!yoo!demo!aru!node,!Shingo!wa!miminari!ka!
to!omotte,!atama!o!futte!mita.![11]!Oto!wa!yanda.![12]!Oto!ga!yanda!ato!de,!Shingo!wa!hajimete!kyoofu!
ni! osowareta.! [13]! Shiki! o! shirasareta! no! de! wa! nai! ka! to! samuke! ga! shita.! [14]! Kaze! no! oto! ka,!
miminari!ka!to,!Shingo!wa!reisei!ni!kangaeta!tsumori!datta!ga,!sonna!oto!nado!shinaktta!no!de!wa!nai!
ka!to!omowarta.![15]!Shikashi,!tashika!ni!yama!no!oto!wa!kikoete! ita.!(Kawabata!Yasunari!!Yama*no*
Oto)!
!
!
!!([1]! Though! August! had! only! begun! autumn! insects! were! already! singing.! [2]! He! thought! he! could!
detect! a! dripping! of! dew! from! leaf! to! leaf.! [3]! Then! he! heard! the! sound! of! the! mountain.! [4]! It! was! a!
windless!night.![5]!The!moon!was!near!full,!but!in!the!moist,!sultry!air!the!fringe!of!trees!that!outlined!
the!mountain!was!blurred.![6]!They!were!motionless,!however.![7]!Not!a!leaf!on!the!fern!by!the!veranda!
was!stirring.![8'1]!In!these!mountain!recesses!of!Kamakura!the!sea!could!sometimes!be!heard!at!night.!
[8'2]Shingo!wondered!if!he!might!have!heard!the!sound!of!the!sea.![8'3]!But!no!'''!it!was!the!mountain.!
[9]!It!was!like!wind,!far!away,!but!with!a!depth!like!a!rumbling!of!the!earth.![10]!Thinking!that!it!might!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
be! in! himself,! a! ringing! in! his! ears,! Shingo! shook! his! head.! [11]! The! sound! stopped,! and! [12]! he! was!
suddenly!afraid.!![13]!A!chill!passed!over!him,!as!if!he!had!been!notified!that!death!was!approaching.!
[14]!He!wanted!to!question!himself!calmly!and!deliberately!to!ask!whether!it!had!been!the!sound!of!the!
wind,!the!sound!of!the!sea,!or!a!sound!in!his!ears.![15'1]!But!he!had!heard!no!such!sound,!he!was!sure.!
[15'2]!He!had!heard!the!mountain.!)!!
(Translated!by!Edward!Seidensticker!The*Sound*of*the*Mountain!(1970)!)!
!
!!!!Here!let!me!digress!slightly.!Recently!the!number!of!foreign'born!writers!who!write!novel!or!poetry!
in! Japanese! is! on! rapid! increase.! They! are! referred! to! as! “nihongo! sakka”! (
distinguished!from!native!writers!who!are!simply!referred!to!as!“sakka”!(
representative!names:!Hideo!Levy!(
David!Zoppetti!(
!(
),!Yang!Li!(
),!Shirin!Nezammafi!(
!
)),!Tian!Yuan!(
)! and! are!
“writer”).!To!give!a!few!
),!Arthur!Binard!(
),!
),!Boyan!Hisigu!
),!among!others.!In!addition!to!the!nihongo*sakka!!there!
are!another!type!of!writers!who!have!spent!many!years!abroad.!To!give!two!names:!Minae!Mizumura!!
(
! 1951'! )! and! Yoko! Tawada! (
! 1960'! ).! Mizumura! lived! in! the! U.S.! for! more! than!
forty!years!and!is!currently!living!in!Japan,!publishing!novels!and!essays.!Tawada!started!to!settle!down!
in!Germany!since!1982!and!started!to!write!novels!in!1987.!Both!Mizumura!and!Tawada!have!written!
novels!and!essays!in!Japanese,!but!Mizumura!hasn’t!written!novels!in!English,!but!her!style!seems!to!be!
crucially!different!from!canonical!Japanese!literature.!!!
!!!!!Let’s!look!at!Levy!Hideo’s!passages!as!seen!in!Ex.!19!through!Ex.21.!!Ex.!19!and!20!lack!tense!shift!
from! past! to! non'past! tense.! In! Ex.! 19! [S1]! is! a! case! of! “event”,! because! [S1]! describes! the! main!
character’s!eyes!directed!towards!the!right!of!the!window.!But!Levy!didn’t!shift!the!past!tenses!in![S2]!,!!
[S3]!and![S4].!In!Ex.!20!![S1],![S4],![S5]!and![S6]!describe!an!event!of!different!degrees,!but![S2]!and![S3]!
don’t.! Levy! could! have! shifted! their! tense! from! past! to! non'past! tense,! but! he! didn’t.! How! can! we!
explain! absence! of! shift?! ! In! Ex.! 19! and! Ex.! 20! he! intentionally! kept! the! past! tense! intact! even! for! a!
sentence!in!which!he!just!described!what!the!character!(mostly!identifiable!as!the!author!himself)!has!
observed.!!!
!!!!Obviously! Levy’s! literary! work! is! not! translation.! But! in! his! Kari* no* Mizu! Levy! often! referred! to!
translation! process! that! occurred! in! the! mind! of! the! main! character! (which! is! he! himself).! In! other!
words! the! author! must! have! translated! what! he! thought! in! English! into! Japanese,! if! not! entirely.! So! I!
may! dare! to! say! that! in! Ex.! 19! and! Ex.! 20! nothing! was! lost! through! translation! from! English! ! (or!
sometimes!from!Chinese!in!Levy’s!case)!to!Japanese,!but!in!Ex.!21!the!tense!shift!missing!in!English!has!
been! employed! in! his! Japanese! novel.! ! I! believe! that! such! transfer! is! essentially! an! act! of! creative!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
bilingualism!(or!trilingualism).!!
Ex.!19!
[1]!
[2]!
[3]!
Leby!)!(
[4]!
)!(2008:8'9)!(Kari*no*Mizu)!(Temporary*Water)
Hideo!
)!
[1]!Ochitsukanaku!nate,!mata!migi'gawa!no!mado!ni!shisen! o! utsushita.![2]!Mugi'batake!ni!oowareta!
riku! to! kashita! moto! no! kawazoko! ga! taemanaku! tsuzuki,! mugen! ni! higashi! e! mo! hirogatte! ita.!
[3]Hoso'nagai!kooseki!o!omowaseru!yooni!heigen!no!naka!ni!wa!komichi!ga!nobite!ita.![4]!Sono!ue!ni!
wa! chiisana! hito! no! mure! ga! tenzai! shite! ita! ga,! doko! ni! mo! kaoku! wa! nakatta.! (Levy! Hideo! Kari*no*
Mizu)!
([1]!I!lost!presence!of!mind,!and!moved!my!eye!towards!the!right!of!the!window.![2]!The!original!river!
bottom! which! had! changed! to! a! land! covered! with! growing! wheat! just! continued! endlessly,! and!
expanded!limitlessly!to!the!east,!too.![3]!A!path!was!extending!through!the!prairie!like!a!narrow!wake!
behind!a!sailing!boat.![4]!Here!and!there!were!small!groups!of!people!on!the!path,!but!nowhere!I!found!
houses.)!
Ex.20
[1]!
[2]!
[3]!
!
[4]!
[5]!
!
[6]!
Hideo!
Levy(2008:86'87)!!(Kari*no*Mizu)!(Temporary*Water)
)!
[1]! Kare! wa! dookutsu! kara! atama! o! modoshi,! kondo! wa! sugu! tonari! ni! aru! dookutsu! no! naka! o!
nozoki5konda.![2]!Gotai!no!hoso'nagai!butsuzoo!ga!karoyaka!soo!ni!tatte!ita.![3]!Shakamuni!ni!chigai!
nai,!hosoi!kao!no!otoko!no!ryoogawa!ni!wa!ni'tai!zutsu,!yuruyakani!taereta!koromo!o!matotta!bosatsu!
ga! narande! ita.! [4]! Saisho! wa! koganeiro! ni! mieta! ga,! me! o! suete! mite! iru! to! dochiramo! sunairo,! iya,!
hokori'iro!ni!chikai!kiiro!datta.![5]!Kao!kara!kao!e!to,!kare!wa!shisen!o!megurashita.![6]!Sono!uchi!ni,!
zujoo!no,!sugu!ue!ni!aru!ni'dan'me!no!dekki!kara,!yokuyoo!no!tsuyoi!kansei!ga!tobikon!da.!(Levy!Hideo!
Kari*no*Mizu)!
([1]!He!pulled!his!head!away!from!the!cave,!and!this!time!he!peeped!into!another!cave!right!next!to!it.!
[2]!Five!lean!Buddha!statues!were!standing!gracefully.![3]!What!must!be!Buddha!with!a!small,!lean!face!
was! lining! on! each! side! with! two! bodies! of! Bosatsu! who! wore! gently! hanging! clothes.! [4]! When! he!
stared!at!them,!they!looked!golden,!but!they!had!all!sand!color,!or!rather!as!yellow!as!the!color!of!sand!
dust.![5]!He!rotated!his!eyes!from!one!face!to!another.![6]!Soon!he!heard!strong!cries!of!joy!with!strong!
intonation.)!
Ex.21!
[1]!
[2]!
[3]
(Hideo!Levy!Seijooki*no*Kikoenai*Heya!(Ando’s*
Room)!(
53!)!
[1]!Hajimete!nihonjin!to!issho!ni!samayou!Tokyo!no!machi!ni,!Ben!wa!miserareta.![2]!Aruite!mo!aruite!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
mo! itsu! made! mo! tokenai! nazo! no! michi! o,! oomata! de! nesshin! ni! aruku! Ando! no! kuroi! gakusei'fuku!
sugata!no!ushiro!ni!tsuite!toori'nukeru!to,!totsuzen!futari!no!zujoo!ni!sora!ga!hirobiro!to!hirakeru.![3]!
Namiki'doori! no! koosaten! o! sesse! to! oodan'shite! iru,! Ando! to! onaji! gakuseifuku! no! katamari! to,! sono!
kuro! isshoku! o! murasaki! ya! kooshijima! no! doresu! de! madara! ni! shita! josigakusei! no! mure! no! ue! de,!
ksunnda!konpeki!no!naka!de!sekiban'iro!no!kumo!ga!tame!ma!naku!kita!e!nagarete!yuku.!(Levy!Hideo!
Seijooki*no*Kikoenai*Heya!53)!
([1]! Wandering! the! streets! of! Tokyo! with! a! Japanese! person! for! the! first! time! in! his! life.! Ben! was!
mesmerized.![2]!No!matter!how!far!he!walked,!the!back!streets!continued!to!confuse!him.![3]!As!they!
navigated! those! maze'like! streets,! Ando! eagerly! leading! the! way! in! his! black! school! uniform! and! Ben!
not! far! behind,! the! sky! suddenly! opened! up! above! them.! Far! above! the! crowds! hurrying! across! the!
intersection! of! the! tree'lined! avenue! '''! the! swarms! of! schoolboy! uniforms! just! like! Ando’s,! and! the!
throngs! of! female! students! their! purple! and! checkered! dresses! like! islands! in! a! sea! of! black! '''!
slate'colored! clouds! streamed! forever! northward! against! a! faded! blue! background.)(Ando’s* Room*
translated!by!Christopher!D.!Scott,!To!be!published.)!!
!
753!!Formality!Shift
Formality*shift!in!discourse!is!a!shift!from!formal!predicate!form!to!informal!one!or!vice!versa. The!
[
formal]!predicate!is!always!longer!than![ formal]!predicate,!as!in!“oyogimasu”!(swim)!vs.!“oyogu”,!
“tanoshii! desu”! (enjoyable)! vs.! “tanohshii”,! “genki! desu”! (healthy)! vs.! “genki! da”! and! so! on.! Shift! in!
discourse! has! been! subjected! to! intense! research! in! 1980’s,! initially! in! written! Japanese! and! later! in!
spoken!Japanese,!and!the!research!is!still!in!progress.!!Makino!(1983)!proposed!a!hypothesis!that!the!
formal! predicate,! especially! the! sentence'final! one,! expresses! the! listener’s/reader’s! orientation,!
whereas!the!informal!predicate!expresses!the!speaker/writer’s!subjective!orientation.!In!other!words,!
direction!of!communication!is!not!always!directed!towards!the!listener,!contrary!to!our!common!sense!
understanding! of! communication.! One! piece! of! solid! evidence! for! my! hypothesis! is! the! fact! that!
Japanese!will!never!use!formal!predicates!in!monologue,!which!is!by!definition!addressed!to!himself!or!
herself.! ! Look! at! Ex.22! taken! from! Haruki! Murakami’s! collection! of! essays! called! Yagate* Kanashiki*
Gaikokugo!(1944:!205).!!The!entire!essay!has!been!written!in!Informal*Form!(=IF),!but!towards!the!very!
end! of! this! particular! essay! he! switched! from! Informal* Form! (=IF)* to! Formal* Form! (=FF),! using! “Soo!
omoimasen! ka”! (“Don’t! you! think! so?).! To! put! it! the! other! way,! Murakami! shifted! his! ego'oriented!
communication!style!to!alter'oriented!communication.!The!reader!may!well!be!surprised!by!the!abrupt!
shif!because!up!to!that!moment!he!kept!reading!Murakmi’s!inward'looking,!monologue'like!essay.!!
Ex.22!!!
[1]!
[2]!
[4]!
(1994:!205))
[3]!
Haruki!Murakami!Ygatae*Kanashiki*Gaikokugo!(
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
[1]! Daitai! Academy'shoo! de,! Richard! Gere! dano! Elizabeth! Taylor! dano! ni! erasoo! ni! sekkyoo! nanka!
saretaku!nai.![2]!Tatoe!sore!ga!seiron!de!aru!ni!seyo!da.![3]!Iya,!seiron!de!aru!kara!koso!saretaku!nai!no!
da.![4]!Soo!omoimasen!ka.!!(Murakami!Haruki!Yagate*Kanashiki*Gaikokugo!(1944:205)!
([1]! I! don’t! want! to! be! harangued! during! the! Academy! Awards! Show! by! some! pompous! stars! like!
Richard!Gere!or!Elizabeth!Taylor.![2]!Even!if!they’re!right.![3]!In!fact,!because!they’re!right.![4]! Know!
what!I!mean?)!! Translated!by!Kevin!Steinbach. !
!!!!!Ex.!23!is!taken!from!a!round!table!talk!called!zadankai!'''!a!panel!discussion!participated!by!three!to!
five! special! speakers! on! a! certain! topic.! It! is! in! a! sense! “oral! communication! for! reading”.! For! the!
zadankai!of!Ex.!23!three!women!and!one!man!participated!and!talked!about!“Dining!Cultue!We!Want!to!
Pass!on!to!Our!Children”(“Oya!kara!Kodomo!ni!Tsutaetai!Katei!no!Aji”
).!Zadankai!isn’t!exactly!the!same!as!the!original!spoken!discourse.!The!editor!will!eliminate!not!only!
ah’s!and!eh’s,!but!sometimes!he!will!try!to!change!the!original!wordings!et*cetra!with!permission!from!
the! speakers.! The! speaker! of! Ex.! 23! used! FFs! in! the! first! sentence! [S1]! and! the! last! sentence! [S4]! to!
direct!his!communication!towards!three!attendees!of!the!zadankai,*but!the!FF!in![S1]!shifts!to!IFs*in![S2]!
and![S3]!in!which!he!talked!somewhat!nostalgically!about!his!father’s!fixed!frozen!images!of!preparing!
soba!noodles!and!killing!a!chicken.!Those!two!sentences!express!information!deeply!embedded!in!the!
mind!of!the!speaker.!The!IF*in![S3]!shifts!back!to!FF!in![S4]!“…!oyaji!no!gochisoo!datta!n*desu!ne”!(…!was!
father’s!way!of!offering!a!feast”).!!Notice!also!that!formality*shifting!from!FF!to!IF!co'occurs!with!tense*
shifting*from!Past!Tense!to!Non'Past!Tense.!!!('>!Section!7'2)
Ex.!23!
[1]!
[2]!
[4]!
[3]
(
1992
10
22)!
[1]!Uchi!de!wa,!ofukuro!ga!o'manjuu!o!fukashitari,!kashiwamochi!o!tsukutte!ita!shi,!miso!ya!shooyu!wa!
mura! de! kyoodoo! de! tsukuru! n! desu! yo.! [2]! Mata! o'kyaku'san! ga! kimasu! to,! oyaji! ga! soba! o! utsu.! [3]!
Soshite! kanarazu! sono! hi! ni! wa,! niwatori! ga! ichi'wa! inaku*naru.! [4]! Are! wa! uchi! no! oyaji! no! gochisoo!
datta!n!desu!ne.!!
(Zadankai! “Katei! de! tsutaetai! shokutaku! no! bunka”! Fujin* no* Tomo,! Fujin! no! Tomo! Sha! 1992! nen! 10!
gatsu!goo,!22)!
([1]!At!our!house,!Mum!would!make!manju*(steamed!buns)!and!kashiwamochi!(rice!cakes!wrapped!in!
oak!leaves),!and!the!village!would!come!together!to!make!miso!and!soy!sauce.![2]!When!a!visitor!came,!
Father!would!make!soba!noodles.![3]!And!on!those!days,!a!chikcken!was!sure!to!die.![4]!It!was!Father’s!
way!of!offering!a!feast,!you!see.)!{Translated!by!Kevin!Steinbach.)!
!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!754!!!!Shift!of!Persons!!!!
!!!!!Japanese! personal! pronouns! are! unique! in! that! there! are! so! many! of! them.! As! far! as! I! know! no!
language! has! so! many! 1st! and! 2nd! personal! pronouns.! The! 1st! person! singular! pronouns! in! the! Tokyo!
dialect!alone!include,!among!others,!!phonetic!variations!of!“watakushi”!(“watashi”,!“atakushi”,!“atashi”,!
“atai”,! “asshi”,! “washi”)! in! addition! to! “boku”,! “ore”! and! “jibun”.! ! Generally! speaking,! the! 2nd! person!
pronouns!!in!the!Indo'European!languages!are!maximally!two,!like!French!informal!one!“tu”!and!formal!
one!“vous”.!!But!even!so!when!to!use!“tu”!or!“vous”!or!when!to!shift!one!to!another!isn’t!a!simple!matter.!
There! are! at! least! seven! 2nd! person! pronouns! in! Japanese:! “anata”,! “anta”,! “omae”,! “omee”,! “temee”,!
“kisama”!and!“otaku”,!among!others,!so!!The!3rd!person!pronoun!is!essentially!null,!but!kare!(
and!kanojo
!“he”)!
!”she”!)!became!new!third!person!pronouns!right!before!the!Meiji!period.!28!!Each!one!
of!these!pronouns!has!to!be!selected!properly!according!to!social!factors,!such!as!relationship!between!
the!speaker!and!the!listener,!the!gender!and!age!of!the!speaker/listener!and!physical/social!context!in!
which!the!pronoun!is!used.!But!when!they!are!translated!into!English!all!these!pronouns!are!reduced!to!
just!“I”,!“you”!and!“he/she”.!!Translation!surely!retains!the!original!connection!between!the!1st!person!
and!the!speaker,!2nd!person!and!the!listener,!the!3rd!person!and!“other”!person,!but!it!loses!the!original!
ever!changing!social,!psychological!and!physical!contextual!meaning.!!
!!!!!What!is!lost!in!addition!to!social!contexts!for!each!use!of!personal!pronouns!is!use!of!pronouns!as!
what!Jespersen!(1924:!118)!called!Notional*Person!(=NP).!!The!NP!is!the!case!where!the!speaker!shifts!
the!original!default!use!of!personal!pronouns!!(that!is,!the!use!of!1st!Person!as!Speaker,!2nd!Person!as!
Listener,!3rd!Person!as!Other)!into!the!non'default!use!that!will!violate!the!original!connection!between!
the!pronoun!and!its!referent.!You!can!call!it!a!case!of!referential*displacement.!!!
!!!!!In! the! following! two! charts! (Chart! 1! for! Japanese! and! Chart! 2! for! English)! the! non'shifted! default!
cases,!the!shifted!non'default!cases!and!the!impossible!cases!are!shown!by!a!double!circle,!single!circle,!
and!X,!respectively.!!
Chart!1!(Japanese!Personal!Pronouns)!!!
Person→
Refers!to:!
↓!
Speaker!
Listener!
Other!
!
!1st!Person
(=1)!!!!!!!!!!!
!2nd!Person!(=2)!!!!!!!!!!!!
3rd!Person!(=3)!
!
!
◎!
○!
!
○!
◎!
○!
Note:!◎!=default!function,!○=non'default!function,! =impossible!function)!
○!
○!
◎!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
Chart!2!(English!Personal!Pronouns)
!!
Person!→
Refers!to:!
↓!
Speaker!
Listener!
Other!
!
!1st!Person
(=1)!!!!!!!!!!!
3rd Person (=3)!
!
!2nd!Person!(=2)!!!!!!!!!!!!
!
◎!
○!
!
○!
◎!
!
○!
!
◎!
!
!!!!!The!charts!show!that!there!are!four!distinct!differences!between!Japanese!and!English:!(1)!In!English!
the!speaker!can!use!the!2nd!person!pronoun!“you”!to!refer!to!himself!in!a!monologue,!but!in!Japanese!he!
cannot!do!so.!(2)!In!Japanese!the!speaker!can!use!the!3rd!person!pronouns!“kare”!(he)!or!“kanojo”!(she)!
to! refer! to! other,! but! in! English! he! cannot! do! so.! ! (3)! In! Japanese! a! mother! can! use! the! 1st! person!
pronoun!“boku”!to!refer!to!her!little!son!as!in!Ex.!24,!but!in!English!the!speaker!cannot!do!so.!!
Ex.!24!
!
Hahaoya:!“Boku,!onaka!ga!suita?!!Nani!tabetai?!
(Mother:!Are!you!(Lit.!I)!hungry?!!Wanna!eat!something?)!
!!!(4)!!In!both!Japanese!and!English!the!speaker!can!use!one’s!kinship!terms!as!the!1st!person,!as!in!Ex.!
(25a),!but!Japanese!and!English!differ!in!the!use!of!the!3rd!person,!as!shown!in!(25b)!and!(25c).!Note!
that!in!(25c)!the!3rd!person!“he”!refers!to!the!speaker!and!that!such!use!of!the!3rd!person!is!missing!in!
Japanese.!
!
Ex.!25!
a.!!!!!!“Mammy,!I!want!a!cup!of!tea,!too.”!
!!!!!!!!!!“Yes!dear,!you!can!drink!from!Mammy’s!saucer”.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(Frank!O’Connor:!!My*Oedipus*Complex)!31!
!!!!!!!!
!
“Mama,!boku!mo!koocha,!nomitai”!!“Aa,!ii!wa!yo.!Mama!no!ukezara!kara!nonde.”!
b.!!!!
!
Saya!ne,!“Avatar”!to!iu!kakkoo!ii!eiga!o!mita!yo.!
!!!!!!!!(I!/*Saya!saw!a!cool!movie!called!Avatar,!you!know.)!
!c.!!Old!Mr.!Neave!lowered!himself!into!the!cane!lounge!by!the!window,!stretched!out!his!legs,!and!made!!
!!!!!!!!his!little!evening!joke,!”Dress!him!up,!Charles!”!and!Charles,!!breathing!intensely!and!frowning!bent!!
!!!!!!!!forward!to!take!!the!pin!out!of!his!tie.”(Katherine!Mansfield:!!An*Ideal*Family)!!!!
!!!!!!
!
!
Roojin!Neave!shi!wa!madobe!n!tooisu!ni!mi!o!kagame,!ashi!o!nobashi,!yoru!no!chiisana!joodanguchi!o!
tataita.!“Charles,!chanto!kiru!n!da.!“!Charles!wa!haahaa!itte,!me!o!shikame'nagara!nekutai!no!pin!o!!
!!!!hazushita.!
!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
!!!!!(26)! is! a! paragraph! taken! from! Murakami! (2009:321)! in! which! a! young! lady! called! Aomame! has!
taken!out!a!gum!and!started!to!chew!it.!In![S1]!she!is!objectively!referred!to!as!the!3rd!person!“kanojo”!
(she).! The! same! pronoun! is! deleted! in! [S2]! at! the! subject! position,! but! the! sentence! as! a! whole! still!
keeps!its!objective!distance.!!A!single!noun!“spearmint”!in![S3]!and!a!single!phrase!“nostalgic!smell”!in!
[S4]! describe! olfactory! sense! felt! by! Aomame,! causing! the! reader! to! empathize! with! her.! The! final!
auxiliary!verb!“~te!kureta”!in![S5]!shows!that!the!author!described!this!sentence!from!Aomame’s!point!
of!view,!eabling!the!reader!to!further!empathize!with!her.!In!other!words,!!Aomame!is!an!empathy!focus!
in!this!sentence,!indicating!that!objectivity!of!sentence![S1]!is!now!replaced!by!subjectivity.!If!the!final!
auxiliary! verb! were! “~te! kuru”! instead! of! “~te! iku”,! the! sentence! [S6]! would! sounds! more! subjective!
because! the! underlying! verb! “kuru”! indicates! someone! or! something! moves! to! a! place! where! the!
speaker!belongs,!but!choice!of!“~te!iku”!makes!the!sentence!rather!objective.!But!in![S7]!and![S8]!the!
original!3rd!person!pronoun!“kanojo”!shifted!to!the!1st!person!pronoun!“watashi”.!!It!is!impossible!for!a!
translator!to!put!such!cognition'based!shift!of!person!into!English.!!
!
Ex.!26!
![1]!
!(=
)!
[2]!
[4]!
[3]!
[5]!
[8]!
[6]!
[7]!
(
!(2009:321)!Vol.2)!!!
[1]! Kanojo! (=Aomame)! wa! futo! omoidashite! kotton! pantsu! no! poketto! no! naka! o! saguri,! nimai! no!
chuuingamu! o! soko! ni! mitsuketa.! [2]! Komakaku! furueru! te! de! hoosooshi! o! hagitori,! kuchi! ni! irete!
yukkuri!kanda.![3]!Supeaminto.![4]!Natsukashii!kaori.![5]!Sore!ga!nan!to!ka!shinkei!o!nadamete!kureta.!
[6]! Ago! o! ugokashite! iru! uchi! ni,! kuchi! no! naka! no! iyana! nioi! mo! sukoshi! zutsu! usuraide! itta.! [7]!
Watashi!no!karada!no!naka!de!nani!ka!ga!jissai!ni!kusatte!iru!wake!dewa!nai.![8]!Kyoofu!ga!watashi!o!
okashiku!shite!iru!dake!da.!!(Murakami!Haruki!!IQ84!(2009)!Vol.2,!321)!
([1]! She! (=Aomame)! suddenly! remembered! something,! and! searched! for! it! in! a! pocket! of! her! cotton!
pants! and! found! two! chewing! gums! there.! [2]! She! peeled! off! the! wrapping! paper! with! constantly!
trembling! hands,! and! put! them! in! her! mouth! and! chewed! them! slowly.! [3]! Spearmint.! [4]! Nostalgic!
smell.![5]!It!somehow!calmed!down!her!nerves.![6]!While!moving!her!jaws!the!bad!smell!in!her!mouth!
gradually!faded!away.![7]!It!wasn’t!that!something!was!rotten!inside!her!(Lit.!me).!![7]!Just!the!fear!had!
made!her!(Lit.!me)!feel!strange.)
!
755!!A!Modality!Marker!Noda!and!its!Shift.!!
!!!!!Modality!is!a!grammatical!marker!that!gives!a!sentential!argument!subjective/cognitive!judgment!of!
the!speaker!or!the!writer.!Modality!markers!include,!for!example,!the!speaker/writer’s!characterization!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
of!conjecture,!such!as!“rashii”,!“yoo!da”,!“soo!da”,!among!others,!but!they!are!not!restricted!to!them.!In!
this! section! I! will! focus! on! one! particuar! modality! marker! noda.! It! appears! that! practically! every!
declarative! or! interrogative! sentence! ends! either! with! noda! or! zero.! Instead! of! jumping! at! the!
conclusion! on! communicative! functions! of! noda*! I! would! like! to! examine! some! of! the! most! important!
literature! on! noda! by! Alfonso! (1966),! Kuno! (1973),! McGloin! (1998),! Imamura! (1996),! Noda! (1997),!
Renovich!(2000),!and!Otake!(2009).!
It!was!Alfonso!(1966:!405)!who!has!defined!noda!!in!an!interesting!way,!as!quoted!below.!
“Basically,!the!meaning!of!a!sentence!does!not!change!by!the!addition!of!NO!DESU!to!it.!However,!the!
presence! of! NO! DESU! adds! certain! overtones! to! the! statement,! for! it! indicates! some! EXPLANATION,!
either!of!what!was!said!or!done,!or!will!be!said!or!done,!and!as!such!always!suggests!some!context!or!
situation.”!
!
!!!!!I!have!no!argument!against!Alfonso’s!understanding!of!noda!as!a!marker!that!is!used!in!a!plethora!of!
contexts! and! situations.! But! I! take! issue! with! his! generalization! that! noda! indicates! “some!
EXPLANATION,!either!of!what!was!said!or!done”.!!!Using!an!example!of!(27a)!Alfonso!states!“Hanashi!ga!
aru! n*desu”! explains! why! the! other! is! requested! to! wait”.! (ibid:! 405)! ! In! sentences! of! (27b'd)! which! I!
produced! for! creating! contrast! with! (27a)! noda* isn’t! used,! but! “hanashi! ga! aru/arimasu”! (I! have!
something!to!tell!you)!gives!an!explanation!why!the!speaker!wants!the!listener!to!wait!for!a!moment.!!
Something!must!be!wrong!to!assume!that!noda!indicates!an!explanation.!
!Ex.!27!
a.!
!
Chotto!matte!kudasai.!Hanashi!ga!aru!n*desu.!!
!!!!!!!!!(!Just!a!moment!please.!!I!have!something!to!tell!you.!!)!!!
b.!!!!!
!
Chotto!matte!kudasai.!Hanashi!ga!arimasu.!
!!!!!!!!(!Just!a!moment!please.!I!have!something!to!tell!you.)!
!
c.!!
!
Hanashi!ga!aru!kara,!chotto!matte!kudasai.!!
(I!have!something!to!tell!you,!so!please!wait!for!a!moment.)!
d.!!!!!
!
Hanashi!ga!aru.!Chotto!mate.
!!!!
I!have!something!to!tell!you.!Wait!for!a!!while.)!
!!!!!Kuno! (1973:! 223'233)! has! accepted! Alfonso’s! characterization! of! noda! as! a! marker! of! explanation.!
Very!interestingly!the!title!he!gave!to!the!chapter!on!noda!was!“No!Desu!‘It!Is!That””.!It!looks!as!if!noda!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
can! be! translated! into! English! “It! is! that! ~”.! But! Kuno! apparently! has! equated! an! English!
complementizer! ! “that”! with! a! nominalizer! “no”.! ! 35
Kuno’s! summary! of! functions! of! noda! follows.!!
(ibid:!232'233)!!!!!
(i)
No*desu!gives!some!explanation!for!what!the!speaker!has!said!or!done!or!the!state.!
(ii)
No*desu*ka!asks!for!the!hearer’s!explanation!for!what!the!speaker!has!heard!or!observed.!!
iii) When!the!no*desu!construction!is!paired!with!a!request,!it!often!acquires!a!reproachful!tone.!
(iv)! ! In! the! immediate! environment! in! which! the! speaker! has! made! some! observation,! questions!
about!the!observation!without!using!the!no*desu!construction!are!often!out!of!place.!!
!
!!!!!As!!!(i)!indicates,!for!Kuno,!the!central!function!of!noda!is!explanation.!(ii)!assumes!that!a!question!
“~no! desu! ka”! ! asks! for! the! listener’s! explanation,! but! is! it! always! the! case?! ! I! don’t! think! so.! ! Let’s!
consider! (28).! ! When! the! speaker! A1! asks! if! B! is! available! on! next! Monday,! B1! answers! no! and! gives!
reason! why! he! isn’t! available.! A2! wants! more! information! about! B’s! business! trip.! Use! of! noda! adds!
emotive!meaning!such!as!!“I!didn’t!know!it.!Why!didn’t!you!tell!me!about!it?”!or!“I!am!envious!of!you”!or!
“Didn’t!you!go!for!business!trip!just!recently?”,!depending!on!a!given!situation.!In!other!word,!it!can’t!be!
a!straightforward!question.!!The!marker!noda!indicates!that!A2!is!involved!in!a!new!situation!provided!
by!B1!and!reacts!to!it!emotively.!Notice!that!B2!intentionally!ignores!what!is!emotively!implied!in!A2.!!!
Ex.!28!
A1:!!!
!
Raishuu!no!suiyoobi,!aite!imasu!ka.!
!!!!!!!!Are!you!available!on!coming!Wedenesday?!
B1:!!!
!
!
!!!!!!!!Aite!nai!yo.!Raishuu!wa!shutchoo!da.!
!!!!!!!!No,!I’m!not!available.!Next!week!I!will!go!for!a!business!trip.!
A2:!
!
!!!!!!!Raishuu!wa!shutchoo!nan*desu!ka.!
!!!!!!!Are!you!going!for!a!business!trip?!!!
B2:!!
!
Un,!Osaka!made!ne.!
!!!!!!!!Yah.!To!Osaka.!
!
Regarding!the!point!(iii)!Kuno!used!an!example!like!(29).!!(29a)!is!just!a!request!with!a!straightforward!
explanation,!but!(29b)!expresses!a!reproachful!tone!because!of!the!use!of!noda*before!a!reason/cause!
conjuntion!kara.!!In!my!words,!!(29b)!is!a!case!where!the!speaker!wants!to!get!the!listener!involved!in!
the!speaker’s!situation!of!lacking!money.!!
!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
Ex.!29!!!(=!!Kuno!(ibid:!228(11))!!
a.!!
!
!!!!!O'kane!ga!amari!arimasen!kara,!muda'zukai!shinaide!kudasai.!
!!!!!Since!there!isn’t!too!much!money,!please!don’t!use!it!wastefully.!
b.!!
!
O'kane!ga!amari!nai!no*desu!kara,!muda'zukai!o!shinai!de!kudasai.!
!
!!!!!Function! of! noda! (iv)! can! be! also! reinterpreted! as! follows.! The! speaker! is! so! involved! with! the!
listener!‘s!behavior!that!he!cannot!ask!a!question!without!using!noda.!Kuno!gave!an!example!like!(30)!in!
which!the!speaker!is!talking!to!a!girl!who!is!crying.!
Ex.!30!!(Kuno!(ibid:!233)!
a.!!!
(Cf.!*
)!
!!!!!!Naite!iru!n!desu!ka.!(Cf.!*Naite!imasu!ka.)!
!Are!you!crying?!
b.!
(Cf.!*
!Naze!naite!iru!n!desu!ka.!(Cf.!Naze!naite!imasu!ka.)!
!
)!
!!!!!Let! us! move! to! discussion! of! noda! by! Noda! (1977).! Unlike! Alfonso! and! Kuno,! Noda! classifies! noda!
into!two!types.!One!is!Noda*of*Scope!!(Noda!(ibid:!31'59))!which!shows!the!speaker’s!assertion!that!the!
proposition!is!true,!and!the!other!is!Noda*of*Mood!(Noda!(ibid:!61'104)!which!indicates!the!speaker’s!
desire!to!share!information!with!the!listener.!First,!I!will!argue!that!Noda*of*Scope!doesn’t!have!raison!
d'être.!Consider!Noda’s!example!(8)!(Noda!(ibid:!34))!which!I!will!reproduce!below!as!(32).!!Using!the!
example!Noda!argues!that!Noda*of*Scope!indicates!contrast!!exactly!like!WA!of*Contrast.!!But!it!is!merely!
syntactic!scope!of!NO!as!Nominazer!which!Kuno!(ibid:!233)!has!discussed.!!Contrast!in!(32)!has!nothing!
to!do!with!Noda*of*Scope.*The!contrastive!meaning!is!simply!caused!by!juxtaposition!of!the!negative!and!
the!positive!sentences.!
Ex.!32
!!!![![[
] ]
] !![[[
] ] ]
!!!![[[Sato'sa!ga!kuru]no]!janai].![[[Suzuki'san!ga!kuru]!no!]!da].
!!!!!It!isn’t!that!Sato!is!coming.!!It!is!that!Suzuki!is!coming.!
!
!!!!!Noda*divides!his!notion!of!noda*of!Mood!further!into!two!categories,!that!is,!Thing9Oriented*Mood!(
!Taiji!Mood)!and!Human9Oriented*Mood!(
!Taijin!Mood).!When!a!person!takes!the!
former!mood!for!understanding!a!thing!he!speaks!to!himself,!because!there!is!no!listeners!around!him.!
But!when!a!person!takes!the!latter!mood!for!understanding!a!person,!he!gives!questions!and!asks!for!
explanation.!!I!will!quote!four!examples!from!Noda!(ibid:72!(58)'(61))!as!(33a'd)!which!he!adduced!to!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
support!his!notion!of!Mood.!!Let!me!summarize!his!mood!classification!by!the!following!chart.!!!
!
Examples!
(33a)!
(33b)!
(33c)!
(33d)!
Thing'Oriented!Mood!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!X!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!X!
Person'Oriented!Mood!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!X!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!X!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Others!
!Conjecture!Mood!
Explanation!!Mood!
!Monologue!!Mood!
Imperative!Mood!
!
I! don’t! think! that! the! classification! between! Thing9Oriented* Mood! and! Person9Oriented* Mood! isn’t! as!
clear'cut!as!Noda’s!classification!suggests.!The!sentences!(33a,!c)!which!belong!to!Thing9Oriented*Mood!
can! be! regarded! as! cases! in! which! the! speaker! is! talking! with! his! alter'ego.! In! other! words,! they! are!
special! cases! of! Human9Oriented*Mood.! ! Ambiguity! of! the! mood! categorization! makes! us! suspect! that!
the!categorization!isn’t!really!so!crucial!in!semantic!analysis!of!noda.!
Ex.!33!
a.!!
!
Yamada'san!ga!konai!naa.!Kitto!yooji!ga!aru!n*da.!
!!!!!!!!!Gee,!Yamada!hasn’t!shown!up!yet.!He!must!have!things!to!do.!
b.!!!!!!
!
!!!!!!!!Boku,!!ashita!wa!konai!yo.!Yooji!ga!aru!n!da.!
!!!!!!!!I!won’t!come!here!tomorrow.!I!have!things!to!do.!
c.!!!!!
!
Soo!ka,!kono!botan!o!osu!n*da.!
!!!!!!!!Oh,!I!know.!I!just!push!this!button.!
d.!!!!!
!
!!!!!!!!Kono!botan!o!osu!n*da.!
!!!!!!!You!push!this!button!
!!!!!Some!researchers!including!McGloin!(1989)!and!Renovich!(2000:51)!examined!whether!information!
in!no'clause!of!noda!construction!is!new!or!old!to!the!listener.!According!to!Kamio!(1997)’s!theory!of!
information! territory! (
)
information! in! no'clause! of! ! (33)! should! be! new! to! the!
listener,!whether!it!is!a!case!of!Thing9Oriented!or!Human9Oriented*Mood,!because!communication!
always!carries!new!information!(including!emotive!overtone)!!to!the!listener.!!
!!!!!Renovich!(2005:51)!proposed!the!following!three!Information*Framework!to!explain!use!of!noda.!!
!
I.
II.
III.
[+speaker!knowledge,!+hearer!knowledge]!!
![+speaker!knowledge,!'hearer!knowledge]!
!['speaker!knowledge,!+hearer!knowledge]!
Obviously!it!isn’t!the!case!that!all!the!three!Information*Framework!alone!can!explain!the!use!of!noda.!
Look!at!(34).!!(34a),!(34b)!and!(34c)!correspond!to!Information!Framework!I,!II,!and!III,!respectively.!!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
Ex.34
a.!!
!
!Kono!fuyu!wa!samusa!ga!kibishii!desu!ne.!
!!!!It’s!terribly!cold!this!winter,!isn’t!it?!!!!!
b.!!
!
Afurika!de!kinoo!ryokakki!ga!ochita!soo!desu!yo.!
!I!heard!that!in!Africa!a!passenger!airplane!crashed!yesterday.!
c.!!!
!
Ashita!wa!donna!go'yotei!desu!ka.!
!!!!What!is!your!plan!for!tomorrow?!
!
However,!Renovich!(ibid:!52)!correctly!proceeded!to!present!the!following!chart!to!single!out!specific!
functions!for!each!Information*Framework.!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
H
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
I.!
+S!
Speaker!
know5!
ledge!
!
5S!
!
emphasis,!
reproach,!
rhetorical!question!
III.!
Hearer!knowledge
5H!
II.!
back'channel,! assertion,! posing! vaidity! (scope),! giving! explanation,!
reason,! background! information,! creating! rapport,!
giving!command!
!
conjecture,! seeking! explanation,! creating! !
rapport!(question)!
!
!
!
!
!!!!!Renovich’s! contribution! is! her! detailed! analysis! of! relationship! between! each! of! the! three!
information! frames! and! its! set! of! functions.! Since! no! of! noda! is! a! nominalizer! that! is! attached! to! a!
directly!perceptible!sentential!content,!creating!a!noun!clause,!it!is!natural!that!it!should!carry!semantic!
weight.!In!other!words,!emphasis!listed!as!the!top!of!the!list!under![+S,!+H]!may!well!be!a!most!basic!
function! of! noda* construction.! Renovich’s! detailed! analysis! is! well! supported! by! surface! contexts! of!
situation!and!informational!framework,!but!all!this!seems!to!be!contextual!derivatives!from!emphasis.!
Actually! every! specific! funtion! listed! in! Renovich’s! list! is! not! uniquely! connectd! with! noda.! In! other!
word,!the!chart!cannot!explain!function!of!noda!per!se.!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!!!!!McGloin! (1989)! is! another! linguist! who! used! more! or! less! similar! information! framework.! What!
distinguishes!her!from!Renovitch!is!that!she!came!up!with!a!deeper!function!of!noda,!as!shown!in!her!
definition.!
!!!!“The!basic!function!of!n(o)!desu!is!to!mark!certain!information!as!known!in!the!context!of!a!discourse.!
By!using!no*desu,!the!speaker!can!present!information!which!is!known!only!to!the!speaker!or!the!hearer!
as* if! it! were! shared! information.! ! The! actual! effect,! however,! varies! considerably! depending! on! the!
sentence!types.”!!(McGloin!(1989:89))!
!
!!!!!This! is! an! intriguing! hypothesis,! but! what! is! problematic! of! this! definition! is! that! the! speaker! can!
present! information! which! is! known! only! to! the! speaker! or! the! hearer! as! non'shared! information! as!
shown!in!(35).!!In!both!(35a)!and!(35b)!B!denies!what!A!has!said,!although!B!used!noda!in!his!reply.!In!
(35a)! real! information! is! known! only! to! the! listener! and! obviously! it! isn’t! the! case! that! B! assumed!
“shared”!information!with!A.!!In!(35b),!A!asserts!his!belief!although!he!knows!B!doesn’t!want!to!share!
the!information!with!him.
Ex.!35
a.!!
A:!
!
!!!!Aoi!kao!o!shite!iru!kedo,!byooki?!
!!!!!!!!You!look!pale.!Are!you!sick?!
B:!!
!
!!!!!!Iya,!byooki!nanka!ja!nai!n*da.!
!!!!!!No,!I’m!not!sick!at!all.!
b.!!
A:!
!!!!!!Nihon!no!keizai!wa!ato!5'nen!gurai!de!yoku!naru!n*da.!Kimi!wa!hantai!suru!!
!!!!!!daroo!kedo!ne.!
!!!!!!Japanese!economy!will!recover!in!five!years.!I!know!you!will!oppose!to!it.!
B:!
!
Sono!toori!da.!
!!!!!!!Exactly!!
!
!!!!!Imamura!(1996!&!2007)!also!attempted!to!define!an!underlying!function!of! noda!and! defined! it! as!
function! of! Katari9Kake!
talking! someone! into! ~! )! and! he! talked! about! the! degree! of!
Katari9Kake.!!!He!(2007:6)!proposed!five!practical!rules!for!using!noda!in!both!speaking!and!writing!as!
follows.!39!
Rule!1:!!It!is!better!to!use!noda!when!you!want!to!summarize!a!chunk!of!content!and!your!reader!to!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!understand!the!content!well.!
Rule!1'1:!!It!is!better!to!rephrase!the!previous!sentence!and!use!noda!when!you!want!your!reader!to!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!understand!the!content.!
Rule!2:!!It!is!better!to!use!noda!when!you!assert!something!contrary!to!commonly!accepted!theory!or!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!something!unexpected!or!something!creative!(including!a!case!in!which!you!deny!other!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!possibilities!and!!insist!on!your!own!idea).!
Rule!3.!It!is!better!to!use!noda!when!you!want!to!strongly!express!your!desire!to!ask!questions!of!the!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!reader,!make!an!appeal!to!him,!or!persuade!him.!
Rule!4:It!is!better!to!use!noda!more!when!you!write!enlighteningly!on!matters!that!your!reader!doesn’t!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!seem!to!know.!
Rule!5:!It!is!better!to!use!expressions!other!than!noda!if!you!want!your!reader!to!keep!reading!without!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!breaking!a!flow!of!thinking,!although!you!have!to!summarize!what!you!have!already!written!or!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!rephrase,!or!assert!and!emphasize!your!creativity.
!!!!!Imamura! doesn’t! mention! concept! of! empathy,! that! is,! psychological! distance! between! the!
speaker/writer!and!the!listener/reader.!It!seems!that!noda*is!nothing!but!a!tip!of!the!linguistic!iceberg!
that!can!be!adequately!explained!by!empathy,!including!phenomena!of!giving/receiving!verb,!deletion,!
repetition,!choice!of!particles!such!as!“ni”!vs.!“kara”,!formality!shift,!choice!of!nominalizer!“no”!vs.!“koto”,!!
among! others.! We! should! choose! a! theory! that! can! capture! a! wide! range! of! linguistic! phenomena!
instead!of!choosing!a!theory!that!can!explain!only!one!specific!form!noda.!
!!!!!On! the! basis! of! my! discussion! of! previous! literature! on! noda* I! would! like! to! submit! the! following!
hypothesis:!
!!!!!Noda!is!an!expression!of!the!speaker/writer’s!empathetic!involvement!with!some!situation!!
!!!!expressed!in!the!proposition!of!no'clause.!
!
“Some! situation”! could! be! something! the! speaker/writer! has! been! involved! in! apart! from! the!
listener/reader! or! the! listener/reader’s! behavior! or! a! situation! which! the! speaker/reader! has!
empathetically!observed.!Any!noda'sentence!or!noda'clause!is!bound!to!be!subjective.!!If!my!hypothesis!
is!correct,!it!is!impossible!to!use!noda!unless!empathetic!involvement!exists.!!In!what!follows!I!will!test!
my!hypothesis!using!14!examples.!
In!!(36a)!A!and!B!are!experiencing!the!same!hot!weather!in!the!same!place,!so!there!is!no!reason!why!A!!
or!B!has!to!involve!his/her!interlocutor.!But!in!(36b)!A!came!to!Tokyo!from!Hokkaido!and!experiencing!
heat!for!the!first!time,!so!he!wants!to!get!his!interlocutor!involved!in!what!he!is!going!through.!
!
!
Ex.!36!
a.!(Both!A!and!B!are!Tokyo!people!and!are!now!in!Tokyo.)!!
!!!!!!!!!!A:*
Cf.!
)!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!*Kyoo!wa!atsui!n*desu!ne.!!!!!!(!Cf.!Kyoo!wa!atsui!desu!nee.)!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!It’s!hot,!isn’t!it?!!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
!!!!!!!!!!B:!!*
Cf.!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!*Soo!!na!n!desu!ne.!!(Cf.!Soo!desu!nee.)!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Isn’t!it?!
b.!(A!is!from!Hokkaido!and!B!is!from!Tokyo.!They!are!in!Tokyo!now.)!
!A:!!!
Cf.!
!
!!Tokyo!wa!atsui!n*desu!ne.!!(Cf.!Tokyo!wa!atsui!desu!nee.)!
(Tokyo!is!hot,!isn’t!it?!)!
!B:
Cf.!*
!
Soo!!!na*n*desu!yo.!!!!!!!!!!!(Cf.!*Soo!desu!yo.)!
(Yah,!you’re!right.)!
!In! a! formal! interview! session! as! in! (37a)! the! interviewer! doesn’t! have! any! evidence! that! the!
interviewee! can! speak! English! unless! the! interviewee! has! stated! it! in! his! application! form! and! the!
interviewer!saw!it.!So!noda,!an!empathetic!involvement!marker,!cannot!be!used.!In!contrast!to!(37a),!
the!questioner!A!has!just!seen!B!reading!Chinese!and!got!curious!about!it!and!used!noda.!
Ex.!37!
a. A!is!interviewee,!and!B!is!an!interviewer.
!
!!!B:!A
}
{
/*
!
!A'san!wa!eigo!ga!{hanasemasu/*hanaseru!n*desu}!ka?!
!(!Can!you!speak!English,!Mr.!A?)!
!!!A:!
{
/*
}
!
Hai,!{Hanasemasu/*Hanaseru!n*desu}.!
!!!!!!!(Yes,!I!can.)
b.!!!(A!is!a!friend!of!B.!A!is!surprised!when!he!saw!B!reading!Chinese.)!!!!
!!A:!!!!!B
{
/*
}
!
B'san!wa!chuugokugo!ga!{yomeru!n*desu/*yomemasu}!ka.!
!!!!!!!!(!Can!you!read!Chinese?!!That’s!impressive!)!
!!!B:!!!!
{
/??
}
!
Iie,!sukoshi!dake!{yomemasu/??yomeru!n*desu}.!
!!!!!!!!!(No,!I!can!read!it!a!little!bit.)!
!!!!!In!a!situation!like!(38a)!where!A!is!introducing!himself!in!front!of!audience!who!doesn’t!know!him!at!
all.!There!is!no!way!for!him!to!involve!the!audience.!If!he!used!noda!the!audience!would!think!that!he!is!
selling!his!name.!!But!in!a!situation!like!(38b)!where!A!wants!to!increase!his!cliental!so!he!has!to!make!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
his!name!known.!He!is!trying!to!get!people!involved!in!his!business!as!his!cliental.!
!
Ex.!38!
a.
A!is!introducing!himself!in!front!of!people
!!!A:!
{
!
/*
}
!
Minasan,!{boku!wa!Yamada!Ichiro!{desu/*na!n*desu}.!
Hi,!folks.!!{I’m!Ichiro!Yamada/*I’m!Ichiro!Yamada,!don’t!you!know?})!
b.!
A!is!introducing!himself!to!his!potential!customer
A:!
A
!
{
/
}
!
!
!Watashi!wa!Yotsuboshi!Ginkoo!ni!tsutomete!orimasu!A!to!iu!mono!{na!n*desu/desu}!ga,!chotto!
!!!!!!!!!!o'jikan!itadaite!mo!yoroshii!deshoo!ka.!
!!!!!!!!!!(I!am!A!working!at!Yotsuboshi!Bank,!but!do!you!have!time!now?)!
!!!!!In!(39a),!A!is!asking!or!almost!commanding!B!to!pay.!!This!is!a!case!where!the!degree!of!involvement!
is! highest.! In! (39b),! A! is! talking! with! his! superior! B,! so! he! isn’t! supposed! to! involve! B.! It! is! simply!
impolite!to!use!noda!unless!B!volunteered!to!talk!with!A.!!
!
Ex.!39!
a.!!(A!and!B!are!close!friends.!They!have!finished!eating!at!a!restaurant.)!
!!!!A:!!
B
{
/*
}!
!!!!!Oi!B,!kyoo!wa!omae!ga!{ogoru!n*da/*ogoru}.!
!!!!!(B!!!Today!you!pay,!OK!)!
!!B:!!!
!
!Wakatte!ru!te.!
!!!!!!(!I!know.)!
b.!!(A!is!a!regular!employee.!B!is!department!head.)!
!!A:!!
{
/*
}
Buchoo,!ima!chotto!o'jikan!o!{itadakemasu/*itadakeru!n*desu}!ka.!
!!!!!(Chief,!do!you!have!a!minute!now?)!
!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
In! (40a)! Professor! B! is! visually! showing! his! intention! of! going! home.! If! his! student! A! uses! noda! it!
violates!a!tacit!rule!of!politeness!as!in!(39b).!!In!(40b),!however,!noda!is!possible,!because!both!A!and!B!
belong!to!the!same!age!and!rank!at!their!company.!
!
Ex.!40!
a.!!(Student!A!saw!Professor!B!leave!his!office!with!a!satchel.)!
!!!!!A:!!
{
/???
}
!
Sensei,!o'kaeri!{desu/??na!n*desu}!ka.!
!!!!Professor,!are!you!going!home?!!
B:!
!
Soo!da!kedo,!nanka!yoo?!
!!!!!!!!Yeah.!Anything!urgent?!
b.!!(A!and!B!are!female!employees!of!the!same!age!and!rank.!A!saw!B!preparing!to!go!home.)!
!!!!
A:!!
{
/??
}
!
!!!!!!!Moo!{kaeru!n!desu/??kaerimasu}!ka.!
!!!!!!!(Are!you!going!home!now?)!
!!!B:!!
!
!Ee.!
!!!!!
(Yes.)!
!
!!!!!In!spoken!Japanese!the!adverb!“jitsu!wa”!!(lit.!“to!tell!you!the!truth”)!often!co'occurs!with!noda!at!the!
end,! expressing! something! that! has! occupied! (i.e.,! involved)! the! speaker’s! mind! for! some! time.! The!
subject!is!the!speaker!himself!or!herself.!In!(41a)!the!phrasal!topic!is!“asking!his!professor!to!write!a!
letter!of!recommendation”.!!As!I!stated!earlier!the!use!of!noda*can!easily!violate!politeness!rule,!but!in!
(41a)! the! noda'induced! nonpoliteness! is! completely! offset! by! a! humble! polite! verb! “itadaki'tai”! (Lit.!
“want! to! humbly! receive! a! favor! from! you”).! ! In! (41b)! A! is! asking! his! friend! B! to! give! him! a! piece! of!
information!in!which!he!has!been!involved!for!some!time.!!A!can!freely!express!the!matter!in!which!he!
has!been!personally!involved!without!violating!politeness!rules.!!!!
!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
Ex.!41!!
a.!!(A!student!is!asking!his!professor!B!to!write!a!letter!of!recommendation.)!
!!!!A:!!B
{
/*
}
!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!B!sensei,!jitsu!wa!suisenjoo!o!kaite!itadakitai!{n*desu/*desu}!ga.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!(Professor!B,!if!you!could,!I!would!like!you!to!write!me!a!letter!of!recommendation.)!
!!!B:!
!
Aa,!ii!yo.!
!!!!!!!!!!(!Yes,!I!will!do!it.)!
b.!!(A!and!B!are!friends.!A!is!getting!information!from!B.!)!
!!!!!A:!
{
/
}
!
Ano!ne,!chotto!kikitai!koto!ga!{aru!n*da/*aru}!kedo.!
!!!!!!!!(Listen.!I!have!something!that!I!want!to!ask!you!about.)!
!!B:!
!
!Aa,!ii!yo.!Nani?!
!!!!!!!!!(OK.!What!is!it?)!
!!!!!(42a)!and!(42b)!are!cases!where!one!of!the!two!people!of!equal!standing!tells!the!other!a!piece!of!
surprising!information.!If!A!is!really!involved!with!the!news!he!can!use!noda,!but!if!not!he!doesn’t!need!
to!use!noda.!!If!A!didn’t!choose!noda,!it!would!show!that!he!isn’t!so!empathetic!with!the!event.!In!other!
words,!it!sounds!like!a!piece!of!objective!information.!!
Ex.!42!
a.!!(A!!is!talking!to!her!colleague!about!another!colleague!C.)!!
A:!C
{
/
}
C–san!ga,!kinoo!no!ban,!kootsuu'jiko!de!{nakunatta!n*da/nakunatta}!tte.!
(C!was!killed!in!a!traffic!accident!last!night.)!
!!!!!!!B:!
!
E!!
!!!!!!!!!!(Oh!no!)!
b.!!!(A!is!telling!his!close!friend!B!about!their!common!friend!C.)
!!!!!!!A:!!
C
{
/
!
}
!
Nee,!C!ga!ne,!rainen!{kekkon!suru!n*da/kekkon!suru}!yo.!Shitte!ta?!
(Listen, C!is!getting!married!next!year.!Did!you!know!that?)!
!!B:!
!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
E?!!Maji?!
(No!kidding!)!
Both!(43a)!and!(43b)!present!a!situation!in!which!A!teaches!B!about!something!B!doesn’t!know.!It!is!
usually! a! situation! in! which! A! can! involve! B,! but! if! he! wants! to! teach! not! so! empathetically,! then! he!
doesn’t!use!noda.!!
Ex.!43!
a.!!(A!is!teaching!his!friend!B!how!to!use!a!machine.)!!
!!!!!!!A:!
{
/
}
!
Migigawa!no!kiiroi!botan!o!{osu!n*da/osu}.!Wakatta?!
!!!!!!!!!!!!(You!push!the!yellow!button!on!your!right.!OK?)!
!!!!!!!!!B:!
!
!Un,!wakatta.!Arigatoo.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!(!Yes,!I!understood.!Thanks.)!
b.!!!(A!young!lady!is!teaching!an!old!person!how!to!purchase!a!train!ticket,!)
!!!!!!!A:!
{
!
!/
}
!
Kippu!desu!ka.!Asoko!no!kenbaiki!de!kau!koto!ni!{natte!iru!n*desu/natte!imasu}!ga.!
!!!!!!!!!(If!you!want!to!buy!the!ticket,!you!should!buy!it!at!the!ticket!machine!over!there.)!
In! (44a),! if! the! doctor! wanted! to! face! his! patient! with! a! professional! physical/psychological! distance!
(i.e.,! without! involving! his! patient! too! much),! then! he! wouldn’t! use! noda.! ! In! (44b),! if! the! young! man!
were! really! kind,! he! would! have! chosen! noda* by! coming! to! the! old! lady! very! close! (i.e.,! in! such! an!
involving!manner).!!But!in!either!case!the!dual!choice!is!available!to!the!speaker.!
Ex.!44!
a.!!!!(A!is!a!doctor!and!B!is!his!patient.)!
!!!!!!!A:!
{
/
}
!
Doo!{shimashita/shita!n*desu}!ka.!
!!!!!!!!!!!(What!seems!to!be!the!problem?)!
!!!!!!!!B:!
{
/??
}
!
Atama!ga!wareru!yoo!n!{itai!n*desu/??itai!desu}.!
I!have!a!splitting!headache.!
b.!
A!is!a!kind!young!man!and!B!is!an!old!lady!who!has!lost!her!way.)
!!!!!!!A:!
{
/
}
Obaasan,!doo!{nasatta!n*desu!ka/nasaimashita!}!ka.!
!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!(Lady,!what!happened?)!
!!!!B:!!!!
!!
!!!!!!!!!!!Iya!ne,!chikatetsu!no!eki!ga!wakaran!no.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!(Well,!I!can’t!find!the!subway!station.)!
!!!!!What!I!have!discussed!above!are!cases!where!noda!is!used!in!sentence'final!position.!To!put!it!the!
other!way,!the!sentence'final!position!is!an!unmarked*position!for!noda.!In!what!follow!I!will!show!that!
in! fact! noda* is! seldom! used! in! subordinate! clause.! My! a! priori! thinking! is! that! if! noda* were! really! a!
marker! of! involvement! as! I! have! claimed,! it! shouldn’t! be! deeply! hidden! in! a! position! within! a!
subordinate!clause.!!But!what!we!have!to!be!careful!about!is!the!fact!that!the!category!of!subordinate*
clause!isn’t!black!and!white.!In!other!words,!there!is!degrees*of*subordination.!I!will!discuss!the!issue!of!
subordination! in! terms! of! syntactic! tightness! in! connection! with! use! of! noda! and! argue! that! if! the!
degree!of!subordination!is!low!and!visibility!of!marker!of!involvement!noda!is!relatively!high,!then,!it!is!
possible!to!use!noda!in!that!clause.!!
!!!!!Examples!in!(45)!contain!conjunctions!“ga”!(but),!“kara”!(so,!because)!“keredo”!(but,!although)!that!
are! very! close! to! co'ordinate! conjunctions! in! terms! of! tightness! concept! of! Kuno! (1973:200'209).! To!
rephrase!Kuno’s!concept,!if!Clause!+!Conjunction!constitutes!a!semantic!chunk!that!is!not!subordinated!
to!any!part!of!the!rest!of!the!sentence,!it!is!a!clause!of!co'ordinate!conjunction.!For!example,!all!the!first!
conjuncts!in!(45)!cannot!be!affected!even!if!the!final!predicate!changes!to!negative,!and!even!if!the!word!
order! between! the! first! conjunct! and! the! second! conjunct! are! reversed,! the! meaning! of! the! first!
conjunct! is! not! affected! either.! To! the! extent! that! the! conjunctions! are! co9ordinate! there! is! option! for!
choosing!noda*or!for!not!using!it.!!!
Ex.!45
{
a.
/
}
!!
!!!!!!!!!!Watashi!wa!kinoo!New!York!ni!{itta!n*desu/ikimashita}!ga,!yappari!Broadway!no!musical!wa!ii!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!desu!ne.!
!!!!!!!!!(You!know!what?!I!went!to!New!York!City!yesterday,!but!Broadway!musical!was!good,!exactly!!
as!I!expected.)!
{
b.
/
}
!
!!!!!!!!!!!Ii!daigaku!de!{benkyooshite!iru!no*da!kara/benkyooshite!iru}!kara,!ii!jugyoo!o!takusan!toritai!to!!
!!!!!!!!!!omoimasu.!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
!!(Because!I!am!studying!at!a!good!college!I!would!like!to!take!a!lot!of!good!classes.)!
c.!!!!
{
/
}
!
!!!!!!!Takai!computer!o!{katta!no!da/katta}!keredo,!kinoo!no!hon’no!ichibu!shika!tsukatte!imasen.!
!!!!!(!Although!I!bought!an!expensive!computer,!I!am!using!only!a!fraction!of!its!functions.)!
!!!!!(46)!includes!a!quote!marker!“to”!which!allows!inclusion!of!noda.!!However,!we!cannot!tell!exactly!
whether!the!use!of!noda!reflects!the!psychology!of!the!subject!of!the!sentence!(i.e.,!Hiromi!in!(46a)!and!
an!economist!in!(46b).!!
Ex.!46
{
a.
/
}
!
Hiromi!wa!kookoo!o!detara!kangoshi!ni!{naru!n*da/naru}!to!itte!iru.!
(Hiromi!is!saying!that!she!will!be!a!nurse!after!graduating!from!high!school.)!
{
b.
/
}
!
!!!!!!!Sono!keizeigakusha!wa!nihon!no!keizei!no!mitooshi!wa!totemo!{kurai!n*da/kurai}!to!omotte!iru.!
!!!!!!(The!economist!thinks!that!future!of!Japanese!economy!is!very!dark.)!
!!!As! Mikami! (1953)! stated,! the! conjunctions! “node”! ! <no! +! de>! (because)! and! “noni”! <no+ni>!
(although)! are! conjugated! forms! of! noda,! the! combination! of! “*noda! +! node”! and! “*noda! +! noni”! are!
non'existent.!!!
Ex.!47
{
a.
/
Cf.!(45b))!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
}{
/*
}
!!!!!!!!Ii!daigaku!de!{benkyooshite!iru!noda/benkyoo!shite!iru}!{node/*noda!node},!ii!jugyoo!o!takusan!!!!
!!!!!!toritai!to!omoimasu.!
!!!!!!(Because!I!am!studying!at!a!good!college!I!would!like!to!take!a!lot!of!good!classes.!)!
{
b.
!!!!!!!!!
/*
}
!
(Cf.!(45c))!
!!!!!!!Takai!computer!o!{katta!noni/*katta!noda!noni},!kinoo!no!hon’no!ichibu!shika!tsukatte!imasen.!
!!!!!!(Although!I!bought!an!expensive!computer,!I!am!using!only!a!fraction!of!its!functions.)!
!!!!!(48)!includes!a!noun!modifier!(or!relative!clause)!that!is!a!hard!semantic/syntactic!chunk!into!which!
the!marker!of!involvement!cannot!infiltrate!at!all.!
Ex.!48
a.!
{
/*
}
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
!!!!!!Murakami!Haruki!ga!{kaita/*kaita!noda}!hon!wa!hotondo!zenbu!yonde!imasu.!
!!!!!(I!am!reading!almost!all!of!the!books!!Haruki!Murakami!has!written.)!
b.!
{
/*
}
!
!!!!!Kanojo!wa!ryooshin!ga!mazushikatta!{tame/*noda!tame}!ni!daigaku!ni!ikenakatta.!
!!!!!(She!couldn’t!go!to!college!because!her!parents!were!poor.)!
!!!In! a! case! like! (49)! where! the! conjunctions! such! as! “nagara”! (while)! and! “mama”! (already! given!
situation!or!condition!remains!unaltered)!have!to!be!tightly!connected!with!the!preceding!verb!cannot!
naturally!accept!noda.!
!
Ex.!49
a.
{
/*
}!
!
!!!!!!!!!Kobayashi!wa!coffee!o!{nomi/*nomu!noda}!nagara!shinbun!o!yonde!iru.!
(Kobayashi!is!reading!a!newspaper!while!drinking!coffee.)!
b.
{
/
}
!!
!!!!!!!Kazuo!wa!cooler!o!{tsuketa/tsuketa!noda}!mama!kaisha!ni!itta.!
!!!!!!(Kazuo!went!to!his!company!with!an!air!conditioner!on.)!
!!!!!To!summarize!how!noda!can!be!used!in!a!clause,!I!can!list!the!following!four!points:!(1)!If!a!clause!is!
connected! by! a! conjunction! of! relatively! high! co'ordination! noda! can! easily! enter! there.! (2)! The!
conjugated! form! of! noda,! that! is,! ! “node”! and! “noni”! cannot! be! used! with! noda.! (3)! A! relative! clause!
cannot! accept! noda.! (4)! Conjunctions! such! as! “nagara”! and! “mama”! that! have! to! be! tightly! connected!
with!the!preceding!verb!do!not!have!space!for!noda!to!split!into.!
!!!!!!The! foregoing! discussion! has! clearly! shown! that! noda! is! a! highly! empathetic! involvement! marker,!
because!the!hypothesis!can!explain!each!case!of!unacceptable!use!or!for!that!matter,!existence!of!option!
for!noda!or!non'noda.!!
!!!!Finally! let’s! take! a! look! at! a! passage! taken! from! Haruki! Murakami’s! novel!After*Dark! (2004).! In! the!
original!Japanese!text!five!sentences![S1],![S3],![S6],!![S10]!and![S12]!include!noda.!!Each!sentence!has!
good!reason!to!use!noda!of!involvement!marker:!!all!of!them!sound!like!a!confession!out!of!the!blue!sky!
'''!a!perfect!situation!where!the!speaker!needs!to!use!noda!to!get!the!listener!personally!involved.!!But!
Jay! Rubin’s! translation! cannot! explicitly! capture! the! emotive! overtone! which! is! overtly! expressed! in!
Murakami’s!original!Japanese,!except!for!his!translation!of![S3]!which!has!the!negative!form!of!noda.!In!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
short,!noda!is!another!case!of!being!lost!in!translation.!
!
Ex.!50!
[1]
!
[2]
!
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]!
!
[8]
!
[9]
!
[10]
!
[11]
42!
[12]
[13]
(2004:149'150))
!
!
!
[1]!“Hahaoya!wa!boku!no!seibutsugaku!joo!no!hahaoya!ja!nai!n!da.”!
[2]!“Dakara!umaku!ikanai?”!
[3]!“Iya!umaku!ikanai,!toiu!n!demo!nai.![4]!Boku!wa!hora!omotedatte!koto!o!aradateru!taipu!ja!nai!kara!.!
[5]!!De!mo!mainichi!issho!ni,!seken'banashi!de!mo!shinagara!nikoyaka!ni!shokutaku!o!kakomitai!to!iu!
kimochi!ni!wa!narenai.![6]!Sore!ni!boku!wa!motomoto,!hitori!de!iru!no!ga!kutsuu!ja!nai!seikaku!na!n!da.!
[7]!Purasu,!boku!to!chichioya!to!wa!kakubetsu!yuukootekina!kankei!o!tamotte!iru!to!wa!ienai.“!
[8]!“Tsumari!naka!ga!yoku!nai!tte!iu!koto?”!
[9]!“Te!iu!ka,!seikaku!mo!chigau!shi,!kachikan!mo!chigau.”!
[10]!“Otoosan!wa!nani!o!shite!iru!no?”!
[11]!Takahashi!wa!nani!mo!iwazu!ni!ashimoto!o!minagara!yukkuri!aruku.!Mari!mo!damatte!iru.!
[12]!“Nani!o!shite!iru!no!ka!yoku!shiranai!n!da.!Jitsu!no!tokoro”!to!Takahashi!wa!iu.!
!!!!!!!!!(Murakam!Haruki!!After*Dark*(2004))!
!
”[1]!My!mother’s!not!my!biological!mother.”!
“[2]!So!you!don’t!get!along!with!her?”!
“[3]!No,!it’s!not!that!we!don’t!get!along.!!
![4]!I’m!just!not!the!kind!of!guy!who!likes!to!stand!up!and!rock!the!boat.!!
[5]!But!that!doesn’t!mean!I!want!to!spend!every!day!making!chitchat!and!putting!on!a!smiley!face!at!the!
dinner!table.!!
[6]!Being!alone!has!never!been!hard!for!me.!
![7]!Besides,!I!haven’t!got!such!a!great!relationship!with!my!father.”!
“[8]You!don’t!like!each!other?”!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
“[9]Well,!let’s!just!say!our!personalities!are!different.!And!our!values.”!
“[10]!What!does!he!do?”!!
[11]!Takahashi!walks!slowly!in!silence!with!his!eyes!downwards.!
![12]!Mari!also!keeps!silent.!!
“[13]!To!tell!you!the!truth!I!don’t!really!know.”!Takahashi!says.!!
(Translated!by!Jay!Rubin!!(2007:99'100)!After*Dark)!!!
!
!!!!!Is! noda! entirely! beyond! translation?! ! Otake! (2009)! doesn’t! think! so.! He! analyzed! noda! from! the!
viewpoint! of! English! linguistics! and! develop! an! argument! that! English! “it! is! that~”! construction!
corresponds! to! the! noda! construction.! He! defines! the! meaning! of! “it! is! that~”! as! “On! the! basis! of! the!
speaker’s!experience!and!knowledge!one!interpret!the!meaning!of!the!preceding!content!and!explain!it”.!
If!this!is!what!”it!is!that~”!is!all!about,!it!is!so!apart!from!my!concept!of!noda*that!the!English!translation!
would!lose!the!original!meaning!of!noda.!If!there!were!semantic!equivalence!between!“it!is!that~”!and!
noda!Jay!Rubin!could!have!translated!the!way!Otake!suggested,!but!in!actuality!he!didn’t!do!so.!Actually!
my!examination!showed!that!there!are!no!case!throughout!Jay!Rubin’s!translation!of!After*Dark!where!
he!used!“it!is!that~”!to!translate!noda!except!the!translation!of![S3].!!
!
8.!!!Pedagogical!Implications!for!Reading!Japanese.!
!!!!!At! the! end! of! this! paper! I! would! like! to! discuss! eight! important! implications! for! teaching! reading!
skills!to!learners!of!advanced!levels!of!Japanese!language.!A!most!important!precondition!for!successful!
translation!is,!of!course,!accurate!intensive*reading!(seidoku!
).!!But!my!paper!isn’t!intended!to!give!
translation!skills,!although!in!my!actual!fifth!year!Japanese!at!Princeton,!I!have!touched!on!translation!
skills,!too.!Rather,!it!focuses!on!contrastive!analysis!of!the!Original*Language!and!the!Target*Language!
through!process!of!translation.!Through!the!task!of!translation!instructors!have!to!make!the!learners!of!
Japanese! notice! discrepancies! '–! notably! cognitive! discrepancies! '–! between! the! OL! and! TL! and! both!
intstructors!and!learners!use!translation!as!a!tool!for!identifying!such!discrepancies.!!
!!!!!I!have!no!intention!to!trace!the!history!of!foreign!language!teaching!methods.!Hadley!(1993:89'92)!
discussed! the! so'called! Grammar9Translation* Method! (=GTM)! as! one! of! the! top! three! traditional!
teaching!methods.!!!She!characterized!GTM!as!follows.!!
1.
Students! first! learned! the! rule! of! grammar! and! bilingual! lists! of! vocabulary! pertanining! to! the!
reading! or! readings! of! the! lesson.! ! Grammar! was! leanered! deductively! by! means! of! long! and!
elaborate!explanations.!All!rules!were!leaned!with!their!exceptions!and!irregularities!explained!in!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
grammatical!terms.!!
2.
Once!rule!and!vocabulary!were!leaned,!prescriptions!for!translating!the!exercises!that!followed!the!
grammar!explanations!were!given.!
3.
Comprehension! of! the! rules! and! readings! was! tested! via! translation! (target! language! to! native!
language! and! vice! versa).! Students! had! learned! the! language! if! they! could! translate! the! passages!
well.!
4.
The!native!and!target!languages!were!constantly!compared.!The!goal!of!instruction!was!to!convert!
L1!to!L2!and!vice!versa,!using!a!dictionary!if!necessary.!
5.
There! were! very! few! opportunities! for! listening! and! speaking! practice! (with! the! exception! of!
reading!passages!and!sentence!aloud),!since!the!method!concentrated!on!reading!and!translation!
exercises.!Much!of!the!class!time!was!devoted!to!talking!about!the!language;!virtually!no!time!was!
spent!talking*in!the!language.!
!
!!!!!!Since! nobody! speaks,! for! example,! classical! Greek! any! longer! GTM! must! be! the! only! method! of!
learning! it,! but! when! it! is! used! for! teaching! modern! languages! the! method! surely! fail! to! satisfy! the!
current! communicative*cum*proficiency'oriented! approach.! I! am! not! proposing! here! to! revive! GTM! in!
teaching! of! modern! languages! especially! at! the! beginning! level.! Rather! I! would! like! to! introduce!
translation! of! authentic! materials! as! a! part! of! the! advanced! foreign! language! instruction.! ! Let! me!
discuss!six!advantages!of!using!translation!for!noticing!crucial!differences!between!OL!and!TL.!
851:!!!Awareness!of!Limitation!of!Translation.!
!!!L2!learners!should!know!that!translation!is!always!imperfect.!!But!what!they!should!also!know!is!the!
reasons!why!translation!is!always!imperfect.!!In!the!learner'centered!instruction!of!L2!the!learner!has!
to!discover!on!their!own!exactly!why!the!best!translation!does!“leak”.!!For!example,!when!I!assigned!my!
fifth! year! Japanese! students! at! Princeton! to! translate! the! following! opening! passage! of! Murakami!
Haruki’s!short!story!called!!Hotaru!(“A!firefly”)!my!students!became!aware,!among!others,!that!the!final!
three! sentences! (#9,! #10! and! #11)! were! not! in! the! past! tense! but! in! the! present! tense.! In! their!
translation!nobody!recycled!the!original!present!tense,!but!nobody!could!explain!why!Murakami!shifted!
the!tense.!
!
Ex.!51
⑵
⑶
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
⑷
⑹
⑺
⑽
⑸
⑼
⑻
⑾
(1984).!
Once!upon!a!time,!but!at!most!14!or!15!years!ago,!I!was!living!in!a!student!dormitory.!(2)!I!was!18!at!
that!time!and!had!just!entered!college.!(3)!I!was!almost!completely!unfamiliar!about!Tokyo’s!geography,!
and!on!top!of!it!I!had!never!lived!alone,!so!my!parents!were!worried!!and!found!the!dormitory!for!me.!
(4)!Of!course!expenses!were!also!a!consideration.!(5)!Compared!to!living!alone!the!dorm!cost!far!less.!
(6)! If! I! could! I! wanted! to! rent! an! apartment! and! live! alone! comfortably,! but! when! I! thought! about!
enrollment! fees! and! tuition! plus! monthly! living! expenses! my! parents! sent! me! I! couldn’t! ask! for!
something!that!selfish.!!!(7)!The!dormitory!was!located!on!a!high!ground!in!Bunkyo!ward!with!pleasant!
views.!(8)!The!site!was!spacious!and!surrounded!by!a!tall!concrete!wall.!(9)!Just!inside!the!front!gate,!a!
gigantic! zelkova! tree! towered! in! front! of! you.! (10)! The! tree! was! 150! years! old,! or! maybe! even! more.!
(11)!If!you!stood!at!the!tree’s!roots!and!looked!up,!the!sky!would!be!completely!covered!by!the!green!
branches!of!the!tree.!!(Translated!by!Makino,!students!and!partially!Jay!Rubin)!
!!!!!!!Recall!that!in!my!discussion!of!tense!shift!I!gave!my!hypothesis!that!what!is![−event]!is!represented!
by!the!past!tense,!whereas!what!is![+!event]!is!represented!by!the!non'past!tense.!However!in!Ex.!51!the!
distinction! between! [+event]! and! [−event]! is! very! subtle.! If! a! human! is! involved! the! author! used! the!
past! tense,! and! if! a! natural! situation! is! involved! he! used! the! non'past! tense.! Since! I! started! to! use!
translation!two!years!back!to!motivate!my!students!to!contrast!cognitive!differences!'''!differences!in!
the!way!each!language!cognitively!focus!'''my!students!have!become!more!interested!in!translation!as!
means!to!find!cognitive!differences!and!translation!as!goal.!!Focus!on!contrast!actually!agrees!with!one!
of!the!five!goals!of!foreign!language!learning!proposed!by!American*Council*on*the*Teaching*of*Foreign*
Languages! in! 1996! '''! that! is,! Communication,* Culture,* Connection,* Contrast,! and! Community.* ! (
National*Standards*for*Foreign*Language*Learning:*Preparing*for*the*21st*Century*)!
852:!!Translation!as!Content,Based/Instruction./
Language!consists!of!container!and!content.!!An!act!of!translation!is!no!exception.!It!deals!not!only!
with!container,!but!also!content.!But!a!foreign!language!instructor!is!usually!not!qualified!as!a!literature!
instructor,!although!he!or!she!often!deals!with!content*of!literature.!I!for!one!need!an!instructor!with!
Ph.D.!in!literature!who!can!analyze!a!piece!of!literature!using!current!theories!of!literature.!If!he!or!she!
happens! to! be! interested! in! translation! itself! it! would! be! ideal.! ! As! far! as! I! know! I! don’t! know! such!
Content9Based* Instruction! in! the! U.S.,! except! St.! Olaf! College! in! Northridge,! Minnesota! which! is! in! a!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
process! of! creating! CBI! program! in! Asian! Studies.! I! believe! that! translation! can! be! a! pedagogically!
significant!bridge!that!connects!language!instructors!and!literature!instructors.!!It!is!not!the!case!that!
language!instructors!have!been!teaching!only!container,!because!container!cannot!achieve!its!functions!
unless!it!contains*some*content.!!Yet!it!remains!usually!true!that!language!instructors!including!myself!
are! ignorant! of! purely! literary! approach! to! literature! let! alone! of! current! literary! theory.! Translation!
can! be! a! most! effective! catalyst! for! making! advanced! Japanese! courses! real! container* cum* content!
courses.!
853:!!Translation!as!a!Tool!for!Highly!Intensive!Reading.!
!!!!!The! majority! of! the! Japanese! language! instructors! are! using! both! extensive! and! intensive! reading!
methods.!!I!also!mix!extensive!and!intensive!readings!when!I!teach!at!an!advanced!reading!class.!!Prior!
to!translation!the!learner!has!to!be!engaged!in!extensive!reading!with!a!focus!on!skimming!and!scanning.!
Beyond! this! preliminary! stage! the! learner! proceeds! to! read! the! original! text! intensively! and! begin! to!
translate! it! into! TL.! ! Once! translation! has! started! the! learner! has! to! deal! with! what! I! call! contrasting!
probes! '''! probing! the! contrast! between! OL* and! TL! '''! by! examining! both! linguistic! and! cultural!
contrasts.!!
854:!!Translation!as!a!Tool!for!Developing!Writing!in!both!L1!and!L2.!
!!!!!We! can! use! translation! for! practicing! writing! in! L1! and! L2.! ! Usually! the! instructor! will! give! the!
learner!a!task!of!translating!L2!into!L1!'''!an!easier!task!than!the!task!of!translating!L1!to!L2.!For!the!
harder!task!what!I!have!done!was!to!ask!my!students!to!do!the!reversed*translation,!that!is,!translating!a!
short!story!written!in!L1!(=English)!into!L2!(=Japanese).!The!short!story!was!!Auggie*Wren’ts*Christmas*
Story! by! Paul! Auster.! Through! the! process! of! reversed* translation! my! students! learned! what! it! is! to!
write!in!L2!and!in!addition!they!have!learned!what!will!be!gained!in!translation,!such!as!choosing!the!
cognitively!suitable!personal*pronouns!in!the!social!context!of!the!original!English!story.!!I!have!given!
additional! of! comparing! their! own! translation! with! Murakami! Haruki’s! translation! of! the! same! short!
story.!That!way!my!students!leaned!how!a!professional!novelist!brings!in!his!talents!into!his!translation.!
Whether!the!translation!is!from!L2!to!L1,!or!L1!to!L2,!the!learner!will!learn!not!just!translation!skills,!
but!writing!skills.!!
855:!!Translation!as!a!Tool!for!Recognizing!Styles.!
!!!!Translation!requires!most!careful!attention!to!the!details!of!the!original!text.!!Each!writer!has!his/her!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
own! idiosyncratic! and! statistically* salient* use! of! writing! scripts,! words,! proper! names,! phrases,!
metaphors,!syntax,!punctuations,!among!others.!In!other!words,!through!the!process!of!translation,!the!
learner!becomes!aware!of!the!author’s!peculiar!style!which!reflects!the!way!he!or!she!segments!literary!
reality.!For!example,!one!of!Murakami’s!salient!styles!is!his!use!of!repetitions.!My!students!have!noticed!
it!quite!early!in!their!intensive!reading!of!the!Murakami’s!Firefly.*
Ex.!52
a.
……! [This! is! the! spirit! of! constructing! the! dormitories.! And! the! leading! businessmen!
who!support!the!spirit!(=it)!had!put!in!their!private!money,!and!….]!(SM.)!!
b.
(14:6'7) [He’d!get!dressed,!go!to!the!bathroom!and!wash!his!face.!Washing!his!face!takes!
for!ever.!]!(SM)!
c.
[Half!a!year!went!by!since!I!saw!her!last,!and!during!that!half!a!year!she!lost!so!
much!weight!as!to!look!like!a!different!person.!(SM.)]!
d.
!
[Death!was!not!the!opposite!
of!life.!Death!is!me.(SM.)!]!
e.
[She!was!a!student!at!a!women’s!college!in!the!outskirts!of!Tokyo.!It!was!a!compact!
women’s!college!of!good!reputation.!(SM.)]!
!
Each!sentence!has!repeated!elements!shown!by!the!underlines.!!The!repeated!element!can!be!deleted!
or! replaced! by! a! demonstrative! pronoun.! According! to! my! unpublished! on'going! research! (2011)!
other! Japanese! novelists! do! repeat,! but! not! to! the! extent! of! Murakami! Haruki.! The! average! writer!
would!usually!select!non'repeated!versions!that!look!like!Ex.!53.!
!
Ex!53!
a.!!
……!
b!
!
c.!
d.
e.!
!
!
!!!!!!The!question!which!both!the!instructor!and!the!learner!have!to!address!is!the!reason!why!!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
Murakami! prefers! to! repeat.! My! recent! research! based! on! Makino! (1980),! a! book! with! a! focus! on!
repetitions!in!general!appears!to!indicate!that!Murakami!consciously!uses!the!involving
rhythm!that!
comes! from! repetition.! All! in! all! the! learner! will! encounter! all! sorts! of! problems! of! styles! through!
translation!and!have!to!think!hard!about!question!of!whether!or!not!styles!can!be!translated!from!one!
language!to!another.!
!
856.!!Cultural!Studies!Through!Translation.!
!!!Translation! doesn’t! involve! just! linguistic! translation.! It! also! involves! translation! of! culture.! Take!
Murakami’s!Hotaru!(Firefly)!again.!First!and!foremost!hotaru,!a!tiny!insect,!can!be!translated!to!“firefly”!
in! English,! but! the! cultural! meaning! Japanese! people! have! attached! to! fireflies! throughout! the! long!
cultural! history! of! Japan! since! Man”yoshu! era! (Man’yo! Jidai!
)! will! be! entirely! lost! for! an!
average! reader! who! doesn’t! know! either! Japanese! language! or! culture.! The! text! includes! quite! a! few!
proper! names,! especially! place! names,! such! as! Bunkyo9ku,* Shinjuku,* Tokyo,* Ohoribata,* Yotsuya,*
Ochanomizu,*Jinbocho,*Komagome,*Hongo,*N360! (1967079! Honda),! etc.! that! have! their! own! particular!
cultural! images.! Murakami! is! known! for! his! Westernized! styles! and! for! his! cultured'independent,!
universal!approach,!but!this!short!story!includes!a!plethora!of!cultural!matters!such!as!keyaki!(zelkova),!
Nakano! Gakko! (Nakano! Gakko!
! spy! training! institution),! kimigayo! (national! anthem),! ! rajio!
taiso! (radio! calisthenics),! ! senchi! (centimeter),! NHK! (Japan! Broad! Casting! Co.),! among! many! others.!!
Through!the!process!of!translation!the!learner!has!to!probe!into!contrastive!analysis!of!!his/her!culture!
(C1)!and!the!culture!of!the!original!text!(C2).!!
!
857.!!Loss!of!Translation!Shows!Importance!of!Reading!the!Original!Text.!
!!!!!A! foreign! language! instruction! through! translation! has! two! contradictory! purposes.! The! primary!
purpose! is,! of! course,! to! let! students! realize! how! much! crucial! information! '''! especially! cognitive!
information!'''!will!be!lost!in!translation!of!literary!work.!But!at!the!same!time!my!approach!will!give!a!
chance! for! the! learner! to! reevaluate! the! importance! of! reading! the! original! text! in! a! highly! intensive!
way.!Reading!a!piece!of!literature!isn’t!just!comprehension!of!the!surface!linguistic!meaning!of!the!text.!
It!requires!the!reader!to!go!beyond!a!given!textual!context!into!external!contexts!of!situation!in!which!a!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
given! piece! has! been! written.! The! learner! has! to! mobilize! all! sorts! of! knowledge! about! the! target!
language! and! culture! to! read! between! the! lines.! I! am! surely! happy! if! one! or! two! of! my! students! will!
want! to! become! an! accomplished! translator! of! Japanese! literature,! but! my! more! realistic! hope! is! that!
the! learner! will! become! aware! of! what! it! takes! to! read! a! piece! of! literature! and! translate! it! into! the!
learner’s!native!language.!
!
Summary!
!!!!!As!a!part!of!my!ongoing!research!on!cognitive!linguistics!I!have!questioned!myself!throughout!this!
paper! what! will! be! lost! in! translation! from! Japanese! (especially! Japanese! novels)! into! English.! To!
summarize!in!a!single!sentence!my!research!threw!light!on!deeply!cognitive!areas,!especially!an!area!of!
shift! phenomena,! such! as! tense! shift,! number! shift,! formality! shift,! person! shift! and! modality! shift.!
Actually! I! would! like! to! go! beyond! those! five! phenomena! of! shift! and! cover! shifts! of! deletion! and!
repetition,!both!of!which!are!cognitive!par*excellence.!What!will!be!lost!in!translation!naturally!depends!
on! the! original! language! and! its! target! language.! ! However,! no! matter! which! two! languages! you! are!
translating!something!crucially!cognitive!must!be!lost!in!translation.!!!
!!!!I! would! like! to! examine! what! will! be! lost! or! gained! in! the! process! of! translating! English! literature!
into! Japanese.! Further! I! would! like! to! analyze! what! I! call! mono'lingual! translation! –! synchronic! or!
diachronic!translation!of!one!and!the!same!language,!like!translation!of!literature!written!in!one!dialect!!
into!another!dialect!or!translation!of!older!text!into!modern!language.!!!
Notes!
!
1.! For! the! details! of! general! representation! rules,! see! Makino! &! Tsutsui! (1986:! 50'56).! Furthermore,!
Makino! (1996:! 140'151)! discussed! sound! symbolisms,! especially! grammatical! formatives! such! as! the!
nominalizers! no! vs.! koto,! conjunction! of! reason/cause! node! vs.! kara,! disjunctive! conjunctions! noni*vs.!
keredo,!embedded!subject!markers!no!vs.!ga,!among!others,!with!focus!on!the!contrast!between!nasals!
and!velars.!See!also!Kawaguchi!(2009:207'219).!
!
2.!!It!should!be!reminded!that!sound!symbolism!reveals!how!Japanese!perceive!sounds!not!as!physical!
sounds!but!“semantic”!sounds.!
!
3.!!!However,!katakana!has!been!frequently!used!to!represent!words!that!didn’t!coe!from!Indo!European!
languages.! According! to! Sato! (2004:19'20),! katakana! is! often! used! typically! to! indicate! something!
negative!rather!than!positive.!In!E'mail!by!females.!Some!of!the!examples!are:!!
!(No!good!),!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
(dislike)
! (selfsh),!
(impossible),!
(sad),!
(stingy),!
(difficult),!
(terrible),!
(to!get!angry),!among!many!others.!
!
4.!!Makino!(1996)!discussed!Japanese!language!and!culture!in!terms!of!metonymical!use!of!otherwise!
spatial! notion! of! uchi* (inside)! and! soto! (outside).! The! speaker/writer! feels! closest! to!
someone/something!that!exists!in!uchi,!but!feels!distant!from!someone!or!something!that!exists!in!soto.!!
Note!that!I!didn’t!use!uchi!and!soto!in!dichotomous!way!at!all.!I!assumed!a!continuum!from!uchi!to!soto.!
!
5.! Kuno! (1987:206)! defines! empathy! as! follows.! “Empathy! is! the! speaker’s! identification,! which! may!
vary! in! degree,! with! a! person/thing! that! participates! in! the! event! or! state! that! he! describes! in! a!
sentence.!
!
6.! Kenzaburo! Oe! (September! 30,! 1996)! touched! upon! his! use! of! ruby! in! his! Princeton! course! lecture!
referring!to!William!Faukner’s!word!“grief”and!William!B.!Yates’word!“Rejoice!”!He!translated!the!two!
words!into!“hitan”!
and!“yorokobe!”(
),!respectively,!and!attached!ruby!above!each!word!in!
katakana.! This! way,! he! said,! he! can! define! the! meaning! more! accurately.! It! seems! to! me! that! Oe! is!
attempting!to!defamilialize!or!dissimilate translated!from!Russian!“ostranenie”)!the!semantics!involved!
in!those!two!words.!See!the!first!chapter!of!Theory*of*Prose!(1925)!by!Victor!B.!Shklovsky.!!!
!
7.!For!a!detailed!and!insightful!discussion!of!issues!of!hyoojun9go!and!kyootsuu9go,!refer!to!Lee!(1996).!!
!
8.Sakai!(2009)!analyzed!sharply!!“the!regime!of!translation”!and!radically!criticized!an!act!of!translation!
itself.!Language,!he!argues,!is!as!uncountable!as!water,!but!translation!forces!us!to!choose!arbitrarily!a!
particular! dialect! (or! the! so'called! kyootsuu9go)! with! which! to! do! translation.! This! paper,! however,!
assumes!a!more!realistic!view!that!translation!has!existed!from!time!immemorial!and!that!translation!is!
a!legitimate!process!of!boarder'crossing.!
9.!!Tanizaki,!who!wasn’t!a!native!speaker!of!the!Osaka!dialect,!used!a!native!speaker!as!his!assistant,!but!
it!is!said!that!he!gradually!wrote!the!dialect!without!much!assistance.!
!
10.! I! don’t! know! any! case! where! the! dialect! in! the! original! Japanese! novel! has! been! translated! into! a!
particular!non'standard!dialect.!The!only!case!that!I!know!of!is!translation!of!Cossack!soldiers’!dialect!
from!Tolstoy’s!War!and!Peace!into!the!North!Eastern!dialect!(Toohoku!Hoogen!(
))!by!Kuichiro!
Hara.!
!
11.Metonymy! has! been! often! argued! as! a! case! of! optional! deletion! of! the! content! noun,! but! I! have!
shown!that!it!doesn’t!involve!deletion.!See!Makino!(2003)!for!the!detailed!discussion.!!
!
12.! The! problem! of! a! plural! marker! –tachi! as! a! cognitive! window! was! initially! discussed! in! Makino!
(2005).!Makino!(2008)!is!more!detailed!version!of!the!same!topic.!
!
13.! As! far! as! I! know! Ikegami! (2000:! 159'160)! was! the! first! to! discuss! the! issue! of! number! in! a!
cognitive'linguistic!perspective.!
!
14.!!It!is!beyond!this!paper!to!discuss!the!notion!of!wabi!( )!or!sabi!( ),!but!it!should!be!noted!that!
those! principles! are! still! alive,! enabling! Japanese! to! cognitively! interpret! singularity! or! plurality! of! a!
given!noun,!especially!a!seasonal!word!called!kigo!(
),!as!exemplified!by!“kawazu”!( ),!a!seasonal!
word!for!spring.!!
!
15.!!Basho*Zen*Zufu!(“All*Collections*of*Basho’s*Paintings”!1993,!Edited!by!Otani)!doesn’t!contain!Haiga*
(A)!.!!
!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
16.! Refer! back! to! Ex.! 5,! Ikei’s! poem! that! is! written! entirely! in! hiragana! to! express! his! philosophy! of!
death.!
!
17.!All!this!seems!to!make!me!suspect!that!what!is!important!is!not!physical!reality!Basho!saw!on!an!
autumn!day!in!1681!but!psychological!reality!Basho!has!gone!through!right!before!his!death.!!
!
18.! Number! neutralization! occurs! not! just! in! Japanese,! but! it! also! occurs! in! English! uncountable,!
non'individuated!nouns!such!as!“sheep”,!“dear”,!“fish”,!“water”!,!among!many!others.!Also!in!English!the!
neutralization!takes!place!in!idiomatic!phrases!such!as!“go!to!school”,!“at!school”,!“be!right!on!target”,!
“from!head!to!toe”,!among!many!others.!
!
19.! The! list! isn’t! exhaustive! at! all.! ! I! could! easily! include! shift! in! quoting! in! novels! ! (i.e.,! shift! among!
direct!quote,!indirect!quote,!and!quote!that!comes!between,!as!often!termed!as!free!indirect!quote!(<!Fr.!
style* indirect* libre,! or! Ge.! Erlebte* Rede),! shift! from! sentence! types! (i.e.! between! simplex! vs.! complex!
sentnses),!shift!in!post'positional!particles!between!“ni”!and!“kara”,!among!many!others.!
!
20.! My! research! in! Makino! (2007! &! 2008)! pointed! out! that! the! plural! marker! –tachi* is! attached! to!
practically! everything! starting! with! the! highest! frequency! of! humans,! and! ending! with! the! lowest!
frequency!of!abstract!concepts:!!humans>!mammals!>!fish!&!crustacea!>!beings!in!the!counter!world!>!
plants! >! insects! >,! natural! phenomena! >! natural! objects>! buildings>furniture,! >! abstract! concepts.! ! I!
should!mention!that!younger!generation!has!now!started!to!use!–tachi*almost!as!a!grammatical!plural!
marker.!
!
21.!The!stone!in!the!second!sentence!is!interpreted!as!plural!due!to!the!use!of!“subete!no”!in!front!of!the!
noun.!
!
22.!One!of!the!justifications!of!using!a!concept!of!eventness!is!that!we!can!logically!explain!why!a!stative!
expression!is!likely!to!be!non'past!in!discourse!of!novel.!!
!
23.!Note!that!in!my!discussion!of!tense*shift!I!am!attempting!to!reconstruct!the!notion!of!stativity!as!a!
cognitive!notion!rather!than!a!grammatical!notion.!Whatever!is!perceived!to!be![ event]!is!likely!to!take!
stative!forms!in!Japanese.!
!
24.! The! non'past! tense! and! past! tense! in! the! original! Japanese! are! underlined! and! italicized,!
respectively.!In!the!translation!the!underlined!parts!correspond!to!the!parts!with!non'past!predicates.
25.! Note! that! the! original! sentence! [8]! and! [15]! are! divided! into! 3! sentences! and! 2! sentences,!
respectively!in!the!translation.!
!
26.!In!what!follows!I!will!discuss!an!issue!of!dissimulation!created!by!Levy!Hideo!which!I!discussed!in!
Makino!(2010)!at!a!symposium!entitled!“Nihongo!Kaku!–Bungaku!Soosaku!no!Yorokobi!to!Kurushimi”!(
)!at!the!International!Research!Center!in!Japanese!Studies!!
on!Janury!29,!2009.!
!
27.!But I assume that the shift in formality is kept intact by the editor.
!
28. Akira!Yanabu!!(
)!(1982:195'2128)!mentions!that!kare!and!kanojo!started!to!be!included!in!
dictionaries!in!the!late!Edo!through!early!Meiji.!!My!cognitive!explanation!for!the!reason!why!Japanese!
unmarked!third!person!pronoun!is!zero!is!that!Japanese!communication!has!been!so!uchi9oriented!(that!
is,! the! speaker! and! his/her! uchi'group! person)! that! Japanese! don’t! need! to! use! non'zero! pronoun! for!
the!third!person!–!a!person!who!is!by!definition!a!soto!person.!
!
!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
29. When! an! English! novel! is! translated! to! Japanese,! the! translator! has! to! carefully! choose! the! right!
Japanese!pronoun!that!fits!best!in!a!given!social'psychological'physical!context.!!
!
30.!The!charts!are!the!revised!version!of!Suzuki!(2001:142)!‘s!charts.!
!
31.!Examples!(25a)!and!(25b)!are!taken!from!Takao!Suzuki!(1971).!!
!
32.! Note! that! an! adjective! “natsuka'shi'i”! belong! to! a! category! of! sense'based! adjectives! with! an! infix!
–shi'.!!The!category!includes!such!adjectives!as:!!ure'shi'i!(happy),!kana'shi'I!(sad),!kuru'shi'I!(painful),!
sabi'shi'I!(lonely),!koi'shi'i!(miss!someone),!!urayama'shi'I!(envious)
33.! The! reason! why! this! segment! on! noda! is! long! is! that! linguists! are! still! searching! for! the! real!
communicative!functions!of!the!modal!marker.!
!
34.! Otake! (2009)! actually! devotes! his! entire! book! to! the! thesis! that! Japanese! noda! corresponds! to!
English!“it!is!that!~”!construction.!!I!will!come!back!to!this!topic!later!in!this!section.!
!
35.!“complimentizaer”!is!a!term!for!grammatical!form!that!introduces!a!clause,!and!“nominalizaer”!is!a!
term!for!Japanese!“no”!and!“koto”!which!covert!a!sentence!into!a!noun!phrase.!
!
36. Actually!Kuno!listed!five!functions.!The!fifth!one!which!reads!“The!NP'ga!initiating!the!no*desu!
construction!can!be!either!inside!the!no!clause!or!outside!it.!!For!example,!!Kare!ga![hannin!datta]!no!
desu,!(It!was!he!who!was!the!culprit.)!,![Kodomo!ga!daigakusei!na]!no!desu.(It!is!that!my!child!is!a!
college!student.).!Since!this!function!has!no!direct!bearing!on!semantic/functional!discussion!of!noda*I!
will!not!discuss!it!here.!!
!
37.!Mood!is!a!grammatical!form!that!indicates!the!speaker’s!mental!attitude!towards!his!listener.!!For!
example,! verbs! of! classical! Greek! has! indicative! mood,! subjunctive! mood,! optative! mood,! and!
imperative!mood,!and!each!conjugates!differently.!
!
38.!Makino!(1969:130'139)!argued!that!no!is!an!uchi9oriented!(inside'oriented)!nominalizer!in!contrast!
to!another!co'existing!nominalizer!koto!which!is!soto'oriented.!I!also!argued!there!that!no!is!basically!a!
marker!of!passive!or!active!involvement.!!
!
39.!Imamura’s!rules!refer!only!to!writing,!but!I!assume!that!they!are!applicable!to!speaking!as!well.!!
!
40.! The! reason! why! sentences! in! editorial! articles! of! Japanese! newspaper! very! seldom! end! in! noda!
phrase!is!that!the!editorial!writer!wants!to!attach!objectivity!to!his/her!editorial!article.!!
!
41.!Refer!to!Kuno!(1973:!200'209)!and!Takubo!(1987)!on!the!issue!of!degrees!of!subordination.!
!
42.!This!example!is!so!long!that!I!omitted!its!romanization.!
!
43.! Jay! Rubin! didn’t! translate! sentences! [11]! and! [12]! which! I! have! reproduced! them! as! they! are! in!
Murakami’s!original!work.!I!don’t!know!if!he!missed!them!or!deleted!them!for!some!reason.!
!
44.! However,! according! to! Renovich! (2000:10! footnote! 10)! Maynard! (1996)! examined! Kobo! Abe’s!
Tanin*no*Kao! and! its! translation! The*Face*of*Another! by! Dale! E.! Saunders,! only! 4.23%! of! the! original!
noda!are!translated!by!“it!is!that~”.!She!also!examined!Saul!Bellow’s!Dangling*Man!and!its!translation!
Chuuburarin* no* Otoko! by! Minoru! Ota! and! found! out! that! 11.32%! of! the! original! “it! is! that~”! are!
translated!by!noda.!!!
第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
!
!
45.!What!makes!me!curious!is!that!Murakami!doesn’t!seem!to!be!aware!of!the!underlying!reason!why!he!
shifted!the!past!tense!of!the!first!eight!sentences,!judging!from!his!remark!about!the!shift!in!his!dialogue!
with! Motoyuki! Shibata:! ! “I! feel! that! what! is! most! important! for! literary! work! is! rhythm! whether! the!
work! is! creative! writing! or! translation.! ! I! mix! present! tense! and! past! tense! to! some! extent,! but! the!
intention!is!to!create!rhythm.”!(Murakami,!H.!&!Shibata,!M.!(2000)!Translated!by!Makino)!
!
46.! Murakami! Haruki! is! known! well! as! a! translator! of! English! novels.! He! translated! major! works! by!
Raymond!Carver,!Chris!Van!Alsberg,!Scott!Fitzgerald,!Truman!Capote,!Tim!O’Brien,!among!others.!The!
short!story!I!used!in!class!is!taken!from!Haruki!Murakami!&!Motoyuki!Shibata!(2000:viii!–!xv)!and!the!
discussion!of!their!translations!of!the!same!story!appears!on!pages!222'232.
!
References!
[Japanese!Sources]
(2007)
---
!(1996)!
!'''
!'''
33!
!
!(2007)!
10:!37'48!
!(2009)!
(
!
)!!(1993)!
!(1972)!
(1982)
…
'''!
!12!
(1971)!
,!!141'156!
(2001)!
(1987)!
!(1997)!
(2010)!
!
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!(1989)!
!
18!
!(1996).!!!
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),!109'130,!
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''''
III
!49
!
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!!6.!!
6'5!
'''
!19!
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!'''
!'''!
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!–!
!''''!
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–
(
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(2008)!
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1972)
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第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
(2001)
24,!
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Hadley,!Omaggio!Alice(2000)!Teaching*Language*in*Context.!3rd!Edition,!Boston:!Heinle!&!Heinle!
Hopper,! Paul! J.! (1979)! “Aspect! and! Foregrounding! in! Discourse”,! Syntax* and* Semantics,! Vol.! 12.!
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London,!G.!Allen!&!Unwin,!ltd.;!!!New!York,!H.!Holt!
Kamio,!Akio!(1997)!Territory*of*Information.!Philadelphia,!PA:!John!Benjamins!Publishing!Company.!
Kuno,!Susumu!(1973)!The*Structure*of*the*Japanese*Language,!Cambridge:!MIT!Press.!
Makino,! Seiichi! (2009)! ! Review! Article! on! Bunka,* Kotoba,* Kyoiku:* Nihongo/Nihon* no* * * * * * * * “Hyojun”* o*
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Maynard,Senko! (1996) ‘Contrastive! rhetoric:! a! case! of! nominalization! in! Japanese! and! ! ! ! English!
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第十二回フランス日本語教育シンポジウム 2011年フランス・ボルドー
12ème Symposium sur l’enseignement du japonais en France, Bordeaux France, 2011
What will be lost in translation? With focus on cognitive problems
Seiichi Makino
Keywords: translation, number shift, tense shift, person shift, modality shift, metaphor, dialect,
culture, form, meaning
Summary
No matter how translation has been meticulously done, many things will be bound to be lost in the
process of translating Language A into Language B (your native language or something close to it . But
translation is indispensable to a person who doesn’t know Language A. In my talk I will discuss what will
be cognitively lost in translation from Japanese novels into English. Naturally sound based on auditory
sense and orthography, morphology and syntax based on visual sense will be mostly lost. Notice that both
of them involve our cognitive perception. In spite of total loss of sound in translation of poetic texts in
which sound plays crucial roles they have been frequently and widely translated. The original
morphology and syntax will be also lost in translation. To simply put, FORM will be totally lost, but
MEANING alone will be translated. Translation destroys basic combination of FORM (signifiant) and
MEANING (signifié). Yet, translation has survived from time immemorial, primarily because not
everybody can easily learn the original language and read it and depending on the genre of the text,
translation is satisfactory as long as it is accurate. In other words one has to satisfy himself/herself as long
as MEANING has been adequately transferred from Language A to Language B.
I will briefly touch on translation of perception-based Japanese metaphor, dialects and culture into
English, before I discuss something cognitively lost in translation from written Japanese (especially
literary work) into English – loss of deeper COGNITIVE MEANING expressed explicitly in the original
Japanese language. There are many complex layers to what will be lost in translation, but the present talk
will discuss specifically shift phenomena such as number shift, tense shift, formality shift, person shift,
and modality shift --- shifts that are almost totally missing in English. Those cognitive phenomena which
explicitly reflect the original writer’s cognition are almost permanently lost in translation into English
simply because they are missing in the English language.
Finally I will discuss pedagogical role of translation in reading education. More specifically I will argue
that both learners and instructors (1) should know the limitation of translation, (2) should realize how
translation can lead to contrastive cognitive study of the students’ native language and Japanese, (3)
should learn ecstasy and agony of translation, and (4) should realize how important it is to read the
original text.