Incentive Theory

301
in review
Concepts and Theories of Motivation
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Theory
Main Points
Instinct
Innate biological instincts guide behavior.
Drive reduction
Behavior is guided by biological needs and learned ways of
reducing drives arising from those needs.
Arousal
People seek to maintain an optimal level of physiological
arousal, which differs from person to person. Maximum
performance occurs at optimal arousal levels.
Incentive
Behavior is guided by the lure of rewards and the threat of
punishment. Cognitive factors influence expectations of the
value of various rewards and the likelihood of attaining them.
?
1. The fact that some people like roller coasters and other scary amusement park
rides has been cited as evidence for the
theory of motivation.
2. Evolutionary theories of motivation are modern outgrowths of
theories.
3. The value of incentives can be affected by
,
, and
factors.
Wright et al., 1995). Underarousal, too, can cause problems, as you probably know if
you have ever tried to work, drive, or study when you are sleepy. So we try to increase
arousal when it is too low and to decrease it when it is too high. In simpler terms, we
seek excitement when we’re bored and relaxation when we’re stressed or overstimulated.
In general, we perform best, and may feel best, when arousal is moderate (Teigen, 1994),
but people differ in the exact level of arousal that is optimal for them (Zuckerman, 1984).
These differences in optimal arousal may stem from inherited differences in the nervous
system (Bardo, Donohew, & Harrington, 1996; Berns et al., 2001; Eysenck, 1990a) and may
motivate boldness, shyness, and many other personality traits and behavioral tendencies.
Incentive Theory
primary drives
Drives that arise from
basic biological needs.
secondary drives Stimuli that take on
the motivational properties of primary
drives through learning.
arousal
A general level of activation
reflected in several physiological systems.
optimal arousal theory
A theory that
people are motivated to maintain what
is, for them, an optimal level of arousal.
incentive theory A theory that people
are pulled toward behaviors that offer
positive incentives and pushed away
from behaviors associated with negative incentives.
Instinct, drive reduction, and arousal theories of motivation all focus on internal
processes that prompt people to behave in certain ways. In contrast, incentive theory
emphasizes the role of external stimuli that motivate behavior. According to this view,
people are pulled toward behaviors that offer positive incentives and pushed away from
behaviors associated with negative incentives. In other words, differences in behavior
from one person to another or from one situation to another can be traced to the incentives available and the value a person places on those incentives at the time. If you
expect that some behavior (such as buying a lottery ticket) will lead to a valued outcome (winning money), you will be motivated to engage in that behavior. The value
of incentives can be influenced by inborn physiological factors such as hunger and
thirst, as well as by cognitive and social factors that gain their power through learning.
As an example of physiological influences, consider that food is a more motivating
incentive when you are hungry than when you’re full (Balleine & Dickinson, 1994). As
for cognitive and social influences, notice that the value of some things we eat—such
as communion wafers or diet shakes—isn’t determined by hunger or flavor but by what
our culture has taught us about spirituality, health, or attractiveness. Perhaps you have
also noticed that what early drive reduction theorists called primary drives reappear in
incentive theory as unlearned influences on an incentive’s value. Secondary drives reappear as learned influences on the value of incentives.
“In Review: Theories of Motivation” summarizes the theoretical approaches we have
outlined. Each theory has helped to guide research on motivated behaviors such as eating, sex, and work, which we consider in the sections that follow.