Optimal Arousal Theory

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FIGURE
Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion
8.1
Need
(biological
disturbance)
Drive Reduction Theory and
Homeostasis
The mechanisms of homeostasis, such as
the regulation of body temperature or
food and water intake, are often compared to thermostats. If the temperature
in a house falls below the thermostat setting, the furnace comes on and brings the
temperature up to that preset level,
achieving homeostasis. When the temperature reaches the preset point, the furnace
shuts off.
Unbalanced
equilibrium
Drive
(psychological
state that provides
motivation to
satisfy need)
Equilibrium
restored
Behavior that
satisfies need and
reduces drive
your bodily fluids will be disturbed, creating a biological need for water. One consequence of this need is a drive—thirst—that motivates you to find and drink water. After
you drink, the need for water is met, so the drive to drink is reduced. In other words,
drives push people to satisfy needs, thus reducing the drives that have been created. This
cycle is shown in Figure 8.1.
Early drive reduction theorists described two types of drives. Primary drives stem
from biological needs, such as the need for food or water. People do not have to learn
these basic biological needs or the primary drives to satisfy them (Hull, 1951). Other
drives, however, are learned through experience. These learned secondary drives
motivate us to act as if we have unmet basic needs. For example, as people learn to
associate money with the ability to buy things to satisfy primary drives for food, shelter, and so on, having money becomes a secondary drive. Having too little money then
motivates many behaviors—from hard work to stealing—to obtain more funds.
Optimal Arousal Theory
OPTIMAL AROUSAL AND PERSONALITY People whose ideal, or optimal,
level of arousal is high are more likely to
smoke, drink alcohol, engage in frequent
sexual activity, listen to loud music, eat
“hot” foods, and do other things that are
stimulating, novel, and risky (Farley, 1986;
Zuckerman, 1993). Those whose optimal
level of arousal is lower tend to take
fewer risks and behave in ways that are
less stimulating. As discussed in the personality chapter, differences in optimal
arousal may help shape other characteristics, such as whether we tend to be introverted or extraverted.
Drive reduction theory can account for a wide range of motivated behaviors, but not
for all of them. Consider curiosity, for example. Monkeys, dogs, cats, and rats will work
hard simply to enter a new environment, especially if it is complex and full of novel
objects (Loewenstein, 1994). And most people, too, can’t resist checking out whatever
is new and unusual. We go to the mall opening, watch builders work, surf the Internet, and travel the world just to see what there is to see. People also go out of their way
to ride roller coasters, skydive, drive race cars, and do countless other things that do
not reduce any known drive (Zuckerman, 1996).
In fact, these behaviors create an increase in arousal—the body’s general level of
activation. Arousal is reflected in heart rate, muscle tension, brain activity, blood pressure, and other bodily systems (Deschaumes et al., 1991; Plutchik & Conte, 1997). It is
usually lowest during deep sleep, but arousal can also be lowered by meditation, relaxation techniques, and various depressant drugs. Increases in arousal tend to occur in
response to hunger, thirst, stimulant drugs, and, as just mentioned, stimuli that are
intense, sudden, new, or unexpected. Because people sometimes try to reduce their
arousal and sometimes try to increase it, some psychologists have suggested that motivation is tied to the regulation of arousal.
Specifically, optimal arousal theory suggests that we are motivated to behave
in ways that keep or restore an ideal, or optimal level, of arousal (Hebb, 1955). Too
much arousal can hurt performance, as when test anxiety interferes with some students’ ability to recall what they have studied. Overarousal can also cause athletes
to “choke” so badly that they miss an easy catch or a simple shot (Smith et al., 2000;