Instinct Theory and Its Descendants

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Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion
bungee jumping, to become violent, or to act in any other particular way? What makes
some people go all out to reach a goal, whereas others make only halfhearted efforts and
quit at the first obstacle? These are all questions about motivation, the factors that
influence the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior (Reeve, 1996).
Like the study of how people and other animals behave and think, the puzzle of why
they do so has intrigued psychologists for many decades. Part of the motivation for
behavior is to feel certain emotions, such as the joy of finishing a race or of becoming
a parent. Motivation also affects emotion, as when hunger makes you more likely to
become angry if people annoy you. In this chapter we review several aspects of motivation and the features and value of emotions.
Concepts and Theories of Motivation
䉴 Where does motivation come from?
The
link between motivation and emotion
can be seen in many situations. For example, being motivated to win the U.S.
National Spelling Bee creates strong
emotions as this contestant struggles
with a tough word. And the link works
both ways. Often, emotions create motivation, as when anger leads a person to
become aggressive toward a child or
when love leads a person to provide for
that child.
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Suppose that a woman works two jobs, never goes to parties, wears old clothes, drives
an old car, eats food left behind by others, ignores charity appeals, and keeps her house
at sixty degrees all winter. Why does she do these things? You could suggest a separate
explanation for each of these behaviors: Perhaps she likes to work hard, hates parties,
doesn’t care about new clothes and new cars, enjoys other people’s leftovers, has no concern for the poor, and likes cold temperatures. Or you could suggest a motive, a reason or purpose that provides a single explanation for all these different behaviors. That
unifying motive might be the woman’s desire to save as much money as possible. This
example illustrates the fact that motivation itself cannot be directly observed. We have
to infer, or presume, that motivation is present on the basis of what we can observe.
Motivation helps explain why behavior changes over time. For example, many people are unable to lose weight, quit smoking, or get in shape until they have a heart
attack or symptoms of some other serious health problem. At that point, they may suddenly be motivated to eat a healthier diet, give up tobacco, and exercise regularly (West &
Sohal, 2006). In other words, a change in motivation can change a person’s responses
to stimuli such as ice cream, cigarettes, and health clubs.
Sources of Motivation
motivation The influences that account for the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior.
motive A reason or purpose for behavior.
instinct theory A view that behavior is
motivated by automatic, involuntary,
and unlearned responses.
instincts Innate, automatic dispositions to respond in particular ways to
specific stimuli.
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Human motivation stems from four main sources. First, we can be motivated by biological factors, such as the need for food and water (Tinbergen, 1989). Second, emotional factors can motivate behavior (Izard, 1993). Panic, fear, anger, love, and hatred
can influence behavior ranging from selfless giving to brutal murder. Cognitive factors
provide a third source of motivation (Weiner, 1993). Your perceptions of the world,
your beliefs about what you can do, and your expectations of how others will respond
generate certain behaviors. For example, even the least musical contestants who try out
for American Idol and other talent shows seem utterly confident in their ability to sing.
Fourth, motivation can stem from social factors, including the influence of parents,
teachers, siblings, friends, television, and other sociocultural forces. Have you ever
bought a jacket or tried a particular hairstyle not because you liked it but because it
was in fashion? This is just one example of how social factors can affect almost all
human behavior (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).
Four main theories have been proposed to explain motivation. They include instinct
theory, drive reduction theory, optimal arousal theory, and incentive theory. Each of
these theories has proven helpful in accounting for some aspects of behavior.
Instinct Theory and Its Descendants
In the early 1900s, many psychologists favored an instinct theory of motivation.
Instincts are automatic, involuntary, and unlearned behavior patterns consistently
“released” or triggered by particular stimuli (Tinbergen, 1989). For example, the male