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Faculty Bulletin Sophia Junior College
ISSN 0287-7171
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Faculty Bulletin
Sophia Junior College
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Raising Pragmatic Awareness in the EFL Context
Sachiko Kondo
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Susan Bergman Miyake
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Canadian Education Association. 1991. Heritage Language Programs
in Canadian School Boards. Toronto: Canadian Education Association.
Cummins, Jim. 1979. “Linguistic Interdependence and the Educational Development of Bilingual Children.” Review of Educational
Research. 49: 222-251. Reprinted in Baker, C. & Hornberger, N. H.
(Eds.) 2001. An Introductory Reader to the Writings of Jim Cummins.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
--------. 1980. “The Cross-Lingual Dimensions of Language Proficiency: Implications for Bilingual Education and the Optimal Age
Issue.” TESOL QUARTERLY. 14/2: 175-187.
--------. 1982. “Tests, Achievement, and Bilingual Students.” FOCUS.
February 1982, Number 9, pp. 1-7. Reprinted in Baker, C. &
Hornberger, N. H. (Eds.) 2001. An Introductory Reader to the Writings of Jim Cummins. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
--------. 1992. “Heritage Language Teaching in Canadian Schools.”
Journal of Curriculum Studies. 24(3): 281-286. Reprinted in Garcia,
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O. & Baker, C. 1995, Policy and Practice in Bilingual Education:
Extending the Foundations. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
-------- & Swain, Merrill. 1986, Bilingualism in Education. London:
Longman.
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rectitude of his life; he felt that he had been outcast from life’s feast.
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· 30 ·
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air that the voice was singing and gazing up at his wife. There was
grace and mystery in her attitude as if she were a symbol of
something. He asked himself what is a woman standing on the stairs
in the shadow, listening to distant music, a symbol of. If he were a
painter he would paint her in that attitude. Her blue felt hat would
show off the bronze of her hair against the darkness and the dark
panels of her skirt would show off the light ones. Distant Music he
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being was coming against him, gathering forces against him in its
vague world. But he shook himself free of it with an effort of reason
and continued to caress her hand. He did not question her again for
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moist: it did not respond to his touch but he continued to caress it
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partial darkness he imagined he saw the form of a young man
standing under a dripping tree. Other forms were near. His soul had
approached that region where dwell the vast hosts of the dead. He
was conscious of, but could not apprehend, their wayward and flickering existence. His own identity was fading out into a grey impalpable world: the solid world itself which these dead had one time
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´ BC)*±.~bgµD¶x#]34%.! DI~bg' @)A*Q%4·¸4%.! “It is a
great title of honor for my city that in Ulysses some of the streets
¹ 39 ¹
of Dublin stretch on and on into the windings of our old Trieste.”
Italo Svevo, James Joyce Trans. by Stanislaus Joyce (New York:
City Lights Books, 1950) “Recently Joyce wrote to me: If Anna Livia (the
Liffey) were not swallowed up by the Ocean, she would certainly
debouch into the Canal Grande of Trieste. ” !"#$%&'()*+ ,-./01$
ῌ
῍2
ῒ῎ῐῑῌ῏ΐ῍ῐ
34+ 567 ῍ῒ῍ῐ 8 ῑ 9:;<=>?@ABC)D
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῎ 2 55)H+ Brenda Maddoxn IJ'K LMNOP)QRST-UV “Nora and
Joyce themselves argued a great deal. One day, in a fit of rage at
her, Joyce took the manuscript of Stephen Hero, threw it into the
fire, and stormed out of the room. Nora, Mary, and Eileen leaped
to rescue it. “This book will make him famous,” Nora told Mary,
“I’m going to hide it so he won’t destroy it.” Joyce was too shrewd
to have thrown to the flames a work he considered important. He
was well on his way to turning Stephen Hero into A Portrait of the
Artist as a Young Man. Nonetheless, he was grateful to his home
fire brigade and told his sister Eileen that there were passages in
it that he could not have rewritten.” Brenda Maddox, Nora: A
Biography of Nora Joyce (New York: Ballantine Books, 1983) 113114. 4:
'WXY5Z6[5)-)\];^[
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Ellmann, 144.
y 40 y
῏
῍ῌ !"#$%& ῑ '()* ῍῎ +,-.*/012 ῍ΐ 3456789:
;<=>
ῐ
?You know what Aquinas says: The three things requisite for
beauty are, integrity, a wholeness, symmetry and radiance. Some
day I will expand that sentence into a treatise. [Italics mine]
James Joyce, Stephen Hero, 189. @A2BCDE2,F
GHIJKG5LMNO6PQ=> RS ῍ῌ IT
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ῑ James Joyce, Stephen Hero, 188.
ῒ
If the activity of simple perception is, like every other activity,
itself pleasant, every sensible object that has been apprehended
can be said in the first place to have been and to be in a measure
beautiful; and even the most hideous object can be said to have been
and to be beautiful in so far as it has been apprehended. [Italics
mine] James Joyce, The Critical Writing of James Joyce (New
York: The Viking Press, 1959) 147.
ΐ
The Paris Notebook VW7XW YZ[ \][ ^W_
<I`a;<=> James Joyce, The Critical Writing of James Joyce,
143-146.
῍ῌ
James Joyce, The Critical Writing of James Joyce, 147.
This theory anticipates the one he develops in A Portrait,
where these phases of apprehension are made to correspond to
the three aspects of beauty laid down by Thomas Aquinas,
integritas, consonantia, and claritas. Ellmann, 190. bbcd5;
<=GHJe+fg)7hijklmnoSpqr=>
ῌ
῍
By an epiphany he [Stephen] meant a sudden spiritual mani-
? 41 ?
festation, whether in the vulgarity of speech or of gesture or in a
memorable phase of the mind itself. He believed that it was for the
man of letters to record these epiphanies with extreme care,
seeing that they themselves are the most delicate and evanescent of moments. [Italics mine] James Joyce, Stephen Hero, 188. the most hideous object ῌ
James Joyce, Stephen Hero, 188.
῍ It is from Shelly’s remarks in the “Defence of Poetry” on the
transitoriness of poetic inspiration that Joyce drew his image of
the “fading coal” to refer to the state of the mind during the
“mysterious instant” of claritasthat is, the moment of epiphany. James Joyce, Portrait, 213.
῎ “It is my idea of the significance of trivial things that I want to
give the two or three unfortunate wretches who may eventually
read me.” [Italics mine] Ellmann, 163. !"#$%&'
῏
Here might be one of those ‘epiphanies’sudden, unlooked-for
turns in experiencewhich could prove the more momentous
for being modest. Ellmann, 162.
ῐ The word epicleti, an error for epiclesis (Latin) or epicleseis
(Greek), referred to an invocation still found in the mass of the
Eastern Church, but dropped from the Roman ritual, in which
the Holy Ghost is besought to transform the host into the body
and blood of Christ. What Joyce meant by this term, adapted like
epiphany and eucharistic moment from ritual, he suggested to his
brother Stanislus: Ellmann, 163. '()*&+,-./
0%&1234*5)
ῑ
Ellmann, 163.
42 ῑ
I knew that the old priest was lying still in his coffin as we had
seen him, solemn and truculent in his death, an idle chalice on his
breast. James Joyce, The Portable James Joyce, 28.
ῒ
!"#$%&'()*+, -./01
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-.@
';4<AA B52!C"D EFG.HI, 678!JI(K
LM+N
OPNQ*+RMS
MRSTUVG*
+D, '678!(WXFYWWI, Ellmann, 199.
῍ῌ
James Joyce, The Portable James Joyce, 128.
῍῍ James Joyce, The Portable James Joyce, 227-228.
῍῎
James Joyce, The Portable James Joyce, 238-239.
῍῏ James Joyce, The Portable James Joyce, 241-242.
῍ῐ
James Joyce, Stephen Hero, 188.
ῌ ῌῑῒ῎ῐ῍ ῎ΐ῏
῍ Joyce himself had earlier taken a view of time as duration: “the
past assuredly implies a fluid succession of presents, the development of an entity of which our actual present is a phase only.”
James Joyce, Workshop, 60.
῎ Joyce begins by insisting on the psychological theory that ‘the
feature of infancy’ belong to a portrait as much as the features of
adolescence. The past has no ‘iron memorial aspect,’ but implies
‘a fluid succession of presents.’ What we are to look for is not a
fixed character but an ‘individuating rhythm,’ not ‘an identificative paper but rather the curve of an emotion.’ This conception of
personality as river rather than statue is premonitory of Joyce’s
later view of consciousness. Ellmann, 145.
Z 43 Z
῎
Robert Humphrey, Stream of Consciousness in the Modern Novel
(Bereley: U of California P, 1954) 5.
῏
Frank Budgen, James Joyce and the Making of Ulysses (Bloom-
ington and London: University of Indiana P, 1960) 21.
ῐ “All ages are contemporaries.”
ῑ Wyndham Lewis, Time and Western Man (Boston: Beacon
Press, 1957) 7.
ῒ
*+, -
.
!"
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/0
123456
78,9
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I2
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OPC= QRS
Frank Kermode, The Sense of an Ending: Studies in the Theory
of Fiction (Oxford: Oxford U P, 1966) 177.
ΐ
-
.
T
UVW)*+
X%YZ[
\]^
_`aCbc
)def)gh
ij) :_`aC;<= k>lF #$%&'( )m
nopY
q
bc)def rk>Qk>
:s= )ght-) :;<= uv3wxyz {|)
?@
}~) Frank Kermode, The Genesis of Secrecy: On the Interpretation of Narrative (Cambridge: Harvard U P,
1979) 49-73.
Yet this unhealthiness remains an imitation, to be contrasted
with the invulnerability of the two well-informed sisters and
their mixture of malapropism and acuteness. The words are
plain, but the sentences are subtly cadenced, and Joyce demonstrates his power to capture the inflections of speech. Ellmann,
164.
῍ῌ In this form there is frequently no apparent “plot” at all;
44
usually fairly short, the finished work seems more likely a
“sketch” than an actual “story.” Morris Beja, Epiphany in the
Modern Novel (Seattle: U of Washington P, 1971) 48.
ῌῌ
! "#$ %&' ()*
+, -.
Eliza /0.12
3*4567*)
8,
ῌ῍
Again, no old toothless Irishman would say ‘Divil an elephant’:
he would say ‘divil elephant’ Nora says ‘Divil up I’ll get till you
comeback.’ Naïf sequence9 Your criticism of the two aposopeias
is quite just but I think full dress is not always necessary.
Ellmann, 191.
ῌ῎
Fritz Senn, Joyce’s Dislocutions: Essays on Reading as Translation (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins U P, 1984) 59-63.
ῌ
ῌ
Edmund Wilson, Axel’s Castle: A Study in the Imaginative Lit-
erature of 1870-1930 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1931)
191.
῍
But Flaubert had, in general, confined himself to fitting the
cadence and the phrase precisely to the mood or object described; and even then it was the phrase rather than the cadence,
and the object rather than the mood, with which he was occupied
:for mood and cadence in Flaubert do not really vary much:
[Italics mine] Wilson, 203. ;<=>?@AB5CD
*)8
EF)8GHI@JK8L)MNO
PQDR)+8, S==TUEVWK(XYER8,
῎
We are more at home in the minds of Joyce’s characters than
we are likely to be, except after some study, in the mind of a
: 45 :
Mallarme or an Eliot, ....So long as we are dealing with internal
monologues in realistic settings, we are dealing with familiar
elements merely combined in a novel way. Wilson, 205-206. 1920 ῌ'
! "#$%&
Joyce had already, in “A Portrait of the Artist,” experienced, as
Proust had done, in varying the form and style of the different
sections to fit the different ages and phases of his hero. Wilson,
206. ()*+*,- form . style /%& 0
1 fragments 2#3456789:4;$<=>?@A7BC:
4;%&
῍ ' Wilson, 209.
῎ ' Wilson, 221.
῏ ' Wilson, 19.
Work Cited
Beja, Morris. Epiphany in the Modern Novel. Seattle: U of Washington P, 1971.
Costello, Peter. James Joyce: The Years of Growth 1882-1915. New
York: Pantheon, 1992.
Dujardin, Edouard. Le Monologue Intérieur: Son Apparition, Ses
Origines Sa Place dans L’oeuvre de James Joyce. Paris: Albert
Messein, 1931.
Ellmann, Richard. James Joyce. Oxford: Oxford U P, 1959.
--------------. James Joyce. Oxford: Oxford U P, 1982.
Humphrey, Robert. Stream of Consciousness in the Modern Novel.
Berkeley: U of California P, 1954.
Joyce, James. The Critical Writing of James Joyce. Edited by Richard Ellmann and Ellsworth Mason. New York: The Viking
D 46 D
Press, 1959.
--------------. Letters of James Joyce I. New York: The Viking Press,
1966.
--------------. Letters of James Joyce II. New York: The Viking Press,
1966.
--------------. Letters of James Joyce III. New York: The Viking Press,
1966.
--------------. The Portable James Joyce. Edited by Harry Levin. New
York: The Viking Press, 1974.
--------------. Stephen Hero. New York: The Viking Press, 1966.
--------------. The Workshop of Deadalus: James Joyce and the Raw
Material for A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Edited by
Robert Scholes and Richard M. Kain. Evanston: Northwestern
U. P, 1965.
Joyce, Stanislaus. My Brother’s Keeper: James Joyce’s Early Years.
New York: The Viking Press, 1958.
Kermode, Frank. The Genesis of Secrecy: On the Interpretation of
Narrative. Cambridge: Harvard U P, 1979.
------------. The Sense of an Ending: Studies in the Theory of Fiction.
Oxford: Oxford U P, 1966.
Lewis, Wyndham. Time and Western Man. Boston: Beacon Press,
1957.
Maddox, Brenda. Nora: A Biography of Nora Joyce. New York:
Ballantine Books, 1988.
Pound, Ezra. Pound/Joyce: The Letters of Ezra Pound to James Joyce,
with Pound’s Essays on Joyce. New York: A New Directions
Book, 1967.
Senn, Fritz. Joyce’s Dislocutions: Essays on Reading as Translation.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins U P, ῌ῏῎῍.
47 Wilson, Edmund. Axel’s Castle: A Study in the Imaginative Literature of 1870-1930. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1931.
-----------. Letters on Literature and Politics 1912-1972. London: Routedge & Kegan Paul, 1977.
-----------. The Twenties: From Notebooks and Diaries of the Period.
London: Macmillan, 1975.
-----------. The Wound & the Bow: Seven Studies in Literature. London:
W. H. Allen, 1941.
48 Raising Pragmatic Awareness in the EFL Context
Sachiko Kondo
1.
Introduction
In order to be successful in communication, it is essential for
second language learners to know not just grammar and text organization but also pragmatic aspects of the target language (Bachman 1990)1. ‘Pragmatic competence’ can be specifically defined as
“knowledge of communicative action and how to carry it out, and
the ability to use language appropriately according to context”
(Kasper 1997). Previous studies in ‘Interlanguage Pragmatics’ (Kasper and Rose 1999; Cohen 1996; Ellis 1994; Kasper and Blum-Kulka
1993) have shown that differences and similarities exist in how to
carry out communicative actions between language learners and
native speakers of target languages.
One of the controversial questions is whether ‘pragmatics’ can
be taught in the language classroom, especially in an EFL (English
as a Foreign Language)2 context. As pragmatic competence has a
close relationship with sociocultural values and beliefs of the country or the community where the target language is spoken, ESL
(English as a Second Language) learners certainly have an advantage in acquiring this knowledge. ESL learners have a better chance
of having adequate and abundant input than EFL learners. Kasper
(1997) and Rose and Kasper (2001) extensively discuss results of
previous studies on pragmatic instruction and concludes that pragmatics can indeed be taught. Tateyama et al. (1997) examined the
ῌ 49 ῌ
effects of instruction in pragmatics and demonstrated that Japanese
pragmatic routines such as sumimasen, which is commonly used for
getting attention, apologizing, and expressing gratitude, are teachable to beginning foreign language learners. Kondo (2001) administered Oral Discourse Completion Tasks both before (pre-test) and
after (post-test) explicit pragmatic instruction. Comparison of the
results of the tests indicated the instructional effects on the development of refusal performance by Japanese EFL learners.
One of the approaches that can be used for teaching pragmatics
is awareness-raising. Rose (1994) introduced active video-viewing
activities and suggested that an approach using pragmatic consciousness-raising had the distinct advantage of providing learners
with a foundation in some of the central aspects of the role of
pragmatics, and it could be used by teachers of both native speakers
and non-native speakers. Bardovi-Harlig (1996) in her endeavor to
bring pragmatics and pedagogy together, stresses the importance of
helping learners increase their pragmatic awareness, over a teachercentered classroom where the teachers “tell” and the learners “receive” the information.
2.
2.1
The Present Study
Research Goal
The goal of the present research is to explore what kinds of
pragmatic aspects the learners become aware of through explicit
instruction in pragmatics. The content of classroom discussion that
is intended to raise pragmatic awareness in conducting ‘refusal’ in
English is analyzed.
ῌ 50 ῌ
2.2
Subjects
The subjects of the study were 36 Japanese learners of English
who majored in English at a junior college in Japan. They were
taught in two separate classes, and 18 students were in each class.
They were given pragmatic instruction described below as one part
of their Integrated English Class, which was a required subject
intended to teach the four skills of English.
2.3
Instruction
The students received instruction on speech acts3 once a week
for 12 weeks.
Each lesson was 90 minutes long. The content of the
twelve lessons were, 1) Compliments & Response to Compliments, 2)
Thanking, 3) Interaction (Compliments & Response to Compliments
and Thanking), 4) Request, 5) Refusal, 6) Interaction (Request and
Refusal), 7) Complaint, 8) Apology, 9) Interaction (Complaint and
Apology), 10) Proposal, 11) Disagreement, and 12) Interaction (Proposal and Disagreement).
2.3.1
Teaching Material
The textbook titled Heart to Heart, which was developed by the
Sophia University Applied Linguistics Research Group (Yoshida et
al. 2000), was used for instruction. The book specifically aims to
teach cross-cultural pragmatics in the English classroom in Japan.
Each lesson is organized progressively in five phases: Feeling, Doing, Thinking, Understanding and Using. These phases are organized to help students to become aware of pragmatic aspects of
language use by analyzing their own language use and by looking
for aspects of conducting speech acts that are in common or different between Japanese and Americans.
ῌ 51 ῌ
2.3.2
Goals of Instruction
(1) Raising awareness that misunderstandings between Japanese
and Americans can be caused by differences in performing
speech acts
(2) Making learners aware of what they know already and encourage them to use their universal or transferable pragmatic
knowledge of their first language in the second language contexts
(3) Teaching the appropriate linguistic forms that are likely to be
encountered in performing speech acts
2.3.3
Procedure from Speech Act Chapters
Each speech act chapter in the textbook uses the following
instructional procedure:
(1) Feeling (Warm-up) phase
(a) Listening to two different dialogs and answering questions
(2) Doing phase
(a) Discourse Completion Task and role-play on a new situation
(3) Thinking phase
(a) Looking at the classification of different types of a given
speech act
(b) Listening to model dialogs and writing down key expressions
of each type
(c) Analyzing their own speech act performance according to
types
(4) Understanding phase (Cross-Cultural Communication Notes)
(a) Using graphs presented in the textbook and making comparisons of speech act performances by Japanese, Americans, and
ῌ 52 ῌ
Japanese learners of English.
(b) Discussion in class (The target of the present analysis)
(5) Using phase
(a) Listening and role-play practice of the model dialogs
(b) Discourse Completion Task and role-play tasks on new situations
2.3.4
Description of the Activities in the Refusal Chapter
The present study will analyze the discussion of the ‘Understanding phase’ in a refusal session. The following is a description of
the activities in the refusal lesson, which was used in the fifth week
of instruction:
(1) Feeling (Warm-up) phase
The listening comprehension task in this phase is designed to
help students to get the feeling of the speech act ‘refusal.’ The
students hear two different dialogs in a sample hypothetical refusal
situation and are asked to answer questions about what is happening and how the student feels about the two dialogs. One of the
dialogs represents a typical American way of conducting the speech
act concerned, and the other one represents how Japanese learners
of English typically respond. In this activity, students become
aware that refusal can be expressed in different ways, and that
students do have certain preferences in the way it is conducted.
(2) Doing phase
The students are presented with another hypothetical refusal
situation (called situation 1) in which they are asked to respond in a
way similar to a discourse completion task, and to role-play the
ῌ 53 ῌ
situation with their classmates. The aim of this phase is to see what
each student can do with his/her present knowledge prior to any
instruction dealing with cultural differences and linguistic expressions.
(3) Thinking phase
In this phase students are asked to analyze their own speech act
performance. The textbook presents the students with various ways
of refusing. These classifications (also called “speech act strategies”)
are simplified versions of ‘semantic formula’ and ‘adjuncts’ (Beebe et
al. 1990)4, which are often used in the research of refusals in Interlanguage Pragmatics. With these, the learners can examine the
strategies they used in Situation 1 in the ‘Doing phase.’ An exercise
is provided here to help students understand which expression falls
into which type before they analyze their performance. The textbook says, “Most refusals include expressions stating the reason
why you are refusing. The following types of expressions can be
used together with expressions stating the reason for refusing”
(Yoshida et al. 2000. p. 32). Then the following five types of strategies and expressions for each strategy are introduced.
Type A: Positive Opinion
That sounds wonderful, but ...
I’d like/love to, but ...
I wish I could, but ...
Type B: Thanking
Thank you for the invitation.
Thanks, but ...
Type C: Apology
I’m sorry, but ...
Type D: Alternative
Maybe some other time.
ῌ 54 ῌ
Perhaps next time.
Type E: Direct Refusal
I can’t go.
I can’t make it.
ῌ Reason
I already have other plans.
I have to ...
(4) Understanding phase (Cross-Cultural Communication Notes)
In this phase the students are encouraged to discover the characteristic differences that exist in Japanese and American English
when various speech acts are performed. The data presented here in
the form of a graph (Figure 1) come from the following three groups
of college students who filled out Discourse Completion Tasks for
situation 1.
1) 50 Americans speaking English (A)
2) 50 Japanese learners of English speaking English (JE)
3) 50 Japanese speaking Japanese (J)
῍Situation 1῎
A friend of yours, Jennifer, asks you to go on a ski trip with
her and her friends next weekend, but you don’t feel like
going because you don’t like some of the people who are
going.
Then comes the discussion part, which is the target of the
present study. Students are asked to look at the graph (Figure 1),
compare these three groups and discuss in Japanese similarities and
differences among the three groups in their way of conducting
῏ 55 ῏
speech acts. The important point in this phase is that the task is
designed so that the students can be involved in active thinking
instead of passively reading descriptions on cultural differences.
Analyzing the graph also has the merit of helping the students to
avoid extreme stereotyping, as the graphs show certain tendencies
rather than simple black and white differences.
After discussion in small groups, group leaders are asked to
share what they talked about with the rest of the class.
Figure 1
(From Yoshida et al., 2000, p. 34)
(5) Using phase
The aim of this phase is to provide sufficient spoken activity
based on the knowledge students have acquired up to this point.
The students will practice some model dialogs and create their own
dialogs in English in new situations.
2.4
Data Acquisition
The classroom discussions in the Understanding phase, con-
ducted in Japanese, was audio-taped. First a tape recorder was
ῌ 56 ῌ
placed in one of the discussion groups. Next, all the presentations by
each group leader on the content of their group discussion were
audio-taped. The same procedure was followed in both classes.
The recordings were transcribed for analysis.
2.5
Result and Discussion
Usually students start out their discussion by talking about
what they saw in the graph. They talk about the frequency of
speech act strategies used by Americans speaking English, Japanese
learners of English speaking English, and Japanese speaking Japanese. Almost all the groups mentioned that Americans use the
strategies of ‘Positive Opinion,’ ‘Thanking,’ and ‘Alternative’ more
frequently than Japanese speaking English and Japanese speaking
Japanese. They mention that, on the other hand, Japanese use an
‘Apology’ strategy much more often than Americans do. The following excerpt from the discussion of one group, especially lines 1, 2,
and 3, which are at the very beginning of their discussion, illustrates the point. (Examples from ῌ1῍ to ῌ8῍ were translated from
Japanese by the author of the paper. The letters in bold are the
pragmatic aspects that are the points of analysis.)
ῌ1῍
2
Americans use strategies such as ῌThanking῍ and ῌPositive
Strategy
Opinion῍ often. On the other hand Japanese like to apolo-
3
gize
gize.
1
4
S1:
S2:
We apologize. That’s right.
῎ 57 ῎
5
S3:
9
And Americans make various comments. Americans use
Length of Utterance
Strategy
various
arious strategies first to make a listener feel comfortable,
comfortable
Politeness
and then refuse. They make long comments first.
first
Length of Utterance
On the other hand, Japanese apologize first. This makes the
Politeness
listener feel disappointed.
disappointed
10 S4:
That’s right.
6
7
8
In this part, the students talk about one pragmatic aspect, that is,
the Length of Utterance. Grice (1975) in his pragmatic theory of
‘Cooperative Principle’ lists four maxims of conversation that each
participant in conversations should adhere to, which are the maxims of quality, quantity, relevance, and manner. An inappropriate
length of utterance can be a violation of a maxim of ‘quantity’ or/
and ‘manner5.’ Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1986), in their study of
relationship between length of utterance and pragmatic failure,
suggest that cultures might differ in the way they judge adherence
to those maxims presented by Grice, and therefore they are subject
to cultural variation. In line 5 ῌS3῍ says “Americans make various
comments” and again in line 7 “they make long comments first.”
By her use of terms like “comfortable (line 6)” and “disappointed
(line 9),” ῌS3῍ is aware that the length of utterance has something to
do with attending to the ‘face’6 (Brown and Levinson 1987) of an
interlocutor. They realize that the longer utterance and the use of
various speech act strategies are politeness strategies for Americans
and what Japanese learners say might sound impolite to the Americans.
῎ 58 ῎
The next excerpt indicates that these students have become
aware that Japanese learners do not know English refusal strategies.
ῌ2῍
1
S1:
Japanese learners know few refusal expressions. They
Lack of Knowledge
know only “I’m sorry.”
3
S4:
4
S2:
That’s right. And it sounds somehow cold.
cold
Politeness
Japanese learners use ῌDirect῍ strategy. They say, “I can’t”
2
5
directly, because “I’m sorry” is the only expression they
Lack of Knowledge
know
know.
6
Both ῌS1῍ (line 1) and ῌS2῍ (lines 5 and 6) agree that one of the
reasons why Japanese learners do not use various refusal strategies
is their Lack of Knowledge about American English refusals. Again,
the possibility of threatening others’ face by being impolite is
brought up here by ῌS4῍.
Another pragmatic aspect brought up in their discussions was
Pragmatic Transfer, an influence from learners’ native language and
culture on their interlanguage pragmatic knowledge and performance (Kasper and Blum-Kulka 1993). The following excerpt illustrates the point.
ῌ3῍
1
S1:
Japanese learners don’t say “thank you.” They just say, “I’m
Strategy
῎ 59 ῎
2
sorry.”
3 S2:
4
S1:
Even in Japanese we don’t say “arigato (thank you).”
Pragmatic Transfer
No, we don’t say that.
5
S4:
We don’t say “arigato (thank you).”
6 S3:
7
I wonder if Americans who speak Japanese say “arigato” in
Pragmatic Transfer
refusal situations
situations.
8
S1:
I wonder if it is so.
9
S3:
This book doesn’t tell us about that.
10 S1:
I think it would be interesting to see the same kind of data
11
taken from American learners of Japanese. We can request
12
Ms. Kondo to have research on Americans who speak
13
Japanese. It’s our request to Ms. Kondo.
ῌS1῍ brings up on lines 1 and 2 that Japanese learners of English do
not say “thank you.” Following it ῌS2῍ points out in line 3 that
Japanese speaking Japanese do not say “arigato (thank you)” either,
suggesting the possibility of pragmatic transfer from the native
language. They expand their discussion further and talk about the
reverse possibility that Americans might transfer their native language behavior in refusal in speaking Japanese (lines 6 - 13).
The discussion on “thanking” strategy continues and it provokes awareness of still other pragmatic aspects. The following
comes directly after their discussion in ῌ3῍.
῎ 60 ῎
ῌ4῍
1 S4:
2
We don’t say “arigato” much even in Japanese, so we can’t
Pragmatic Transfer
say it in English.
English
3
We just say “Gomen, gomen. (I’m sorry, I’m sorry.)”
4
S3:
That’s all we say.
5
S2:
6
S3:
It sounds blunt.
blunt
Politeness
But it would sound strange if we say “arigato” in Japanese
Appropriateness
refusal.
7
8
S1:
9
10 S3:
If we hear “arigato”, we feel that the person is accepting, not
Misunderstanding
refusing
refusing.
So these expressions are different among cultures.
cultures
Culture
In discussion ῌ3῍ the students bring up the fact that Japanese do not
say “thank you” either in English or Japanese. Then ῌS4῍ in line 1
uses a discourse marker ‘so’ to mark a causal relation between
Japanese behavior when speaking in their native language and
English, and confirms that it is a Pragmatic Transfer from Japanese.
ῌS3῍ (line 6) adds that saying “arigato” in Japanese refusal is not
Appropriate and ῌS1῍ (lines 8 and 9) follows that such inappropriate
use can cause Misunderstandings. ῌS3῍ (line 10) concludes this discussion by saying that these pragmatic features are Culture-specific.
It was repeatedly mentioned by the students in class that
Japanese use an ‘apology’ strategy often both in Japanese and
English. The following excerpt shows an analysis of why Japanese
῎ 61 ῎
prefer this strategy.
῍5῎
1
S3:
Japanese learners like to use ῍Apology῎ strategy most
most.
Strategy
They are obedient.
obedient
S1:
Are they obedientῌ
2
3
῍S3῎ (lines 1 and 2) says sunaodane (“They are obedient.”) to explain
why Japanese learners prefer apology. She probably feels that in
Japanese culture it is valued to be obedient, and that is the reason
why the Japanese say “I’m sorry” often. The previous studies on
apologies (Kumatoridani 1993; Kumagai 1993; Kondo 1997) support
this view suggesting that the Japanese preference for the expression “I’m sorry” is to keep harmony with an interlocutor by humbling themselves. Japanese prefer to take this humble approach
rather than to take a rational explanatory approach to restore
relationship with an interlocutor. ῍S1῎ questions this analysis by
saying “Are they obedientῌ”, but unfortunately the discussion on
this point ends here and the students do not expand it further.
After group discussions, the leader of each group was asked to
present the summary of the discussion in their group. One of the
points brought up in this section was semantic Content of speech
act strategies. The following is an example.
῍6῎
In Japanese we often say, Gomen ne, kyowa yoji ga arunnda
῏ 62 ῏
keredo.... (“Sorry, I have something to do today, so...”) We
often do not complete a sentence and avoid expressions of
ῌDirect Refusal῍. We tend not to give concrete reasons for
Content
refusal.
refusal
First of all, this group expressed their awareness that Japanese
refusal is different in that they use a strategy of not completing a
sentence, thus avoiding direct refusal expressions. Besides, they
point out that the reasons Japanese give are not concrete. This
analysis is consistent with the findings of previous studies on
refusals of Japanese learners. Both Beebe et al. (1990) and Kondo
(2000) point out that Japanese give formulaic non-specific reasons
in refusals and that is transferred when they are speaking English.
The following comments by another student provide a different
perspective.
ῌ7῍
Sometimes Japanese use vague expressions in consideraPoliteness
tion of the hearer’s feelings.
feelings Japanese learners of English
(JE) cannot give concrete explanations of the reasons for
Content
their refusals, because their English ability is limited
limited.
Limitation of Linguistic Ability
The group leader mentions that the Japanese use vague expressions
as a politeness strategy, which suggests that probably a transfer
from Japanese language is at play. In addition to this analysis, she
῎ 63 ῎
provides another reason for their non-specific explanations or excuses in refusal, saying that they might be caused by the Limitation
of their Linguistic Ability. The limitation of ability in formal aspects
of language, such as vocabulary and grammar, obviously prevent
learners from performing various speech act strategies.
Another group leader talks about the Illocutionary Force of
certain expressions. An Illocutionary Force is a ‘conventional communicative force’ achieved in saying something (Austin 1962)7.
ῌ8῍
I think both Americans and Japanese want to express their
thanks to the invitations, but they have different ways of
Illocutionary Force
expressing it.
it Americans say “thank you” or “I’d love to.”
On the other hand, Japanese say “I’m sorry”. Basically their
feelings are the same.
The group leader explains that the Illocutionary Force that Japanese
learners are trying to convey by “I’m sorry” is probably the same as
what Americans are trying to do so by “thank you” and “I’d love to.”
The point is that the underlying speakers’ intent is the same,
whereas they have different conventional realizations. This is an
interesting analysis because there have been relatively rich studies
focusing on multi-functionality of the Japanese expression sumimasen (Coulmas 1981; Kimura 1994; Tateyama 2001). Sumimasen is
ususally translated as “I’m sorry” in English. However, the expression has functions of both apologizing and thanking. Such compli-
῎ 64 ῎
cations between certain expressions and illocutionary force they
have make communication difficult when we speak in a second
language.
3.
Conclusion
The present study has attempted to analyze what kinds of
pragmatic awareness can be raised in the EFL context using an
instructional method that was specifically developed for raising
pragmatic awareness.
In order to raise pragmatic awareness, the learners were presented with a hypothetical refusal situation and speech act strategies that can be used in the situation. Then they were asked to
analyze their own speech act performance and data taken from
different cultural groups and learners (Americans speaking English,
Japanese speaking English, and Japanese speaking Japanese). The
content of the class discussions that followed revealed that the
present instructional procedure raised students’ pragmatic awareness on the following points:
1. Pragmatic awareness was raised concerning the use of
different refusal strategies among Japanese speaking Japanese, Japanese learners of English speaking English, and
Americans speaking English.
2. Awareness was raised that both Japanese and Americans
attend to the ‘face’ of an interlocutor and use ‘politeness’
strategies in refusals.
3. The lack of pragmatic knowledge about American English
ῌ 65 ῌ
refusals by Japanese learners of English can be reflected in
their choice of strategies when they speak in English.
4. There can be pragmatic transfer from native languages in
the choice of strategies (semantic formula) and in the semantic content of speech act strategies.
5. There can be strategies that are inappropriate and might
cause misunderstandings in refusal situations.
6. The limitation of the linguistic ability of Japanese learners
may have contributed to the difference in strategy choices
and to the non-specific content of refusal reasons.
7. Pragmatic awareness was raised concerning the use of
different expressions for the same feelings and the difficulty of understanding illocutionary force of utterances in
second languages.
The findings of the present study show that learners can become linguists and discoverers themselves. They were actively
involved in analyzing, thinking, and reflecting on their own speech
performance. As a result, they became aware of varieties of pragmatic aspects.
Teaching pragmatics is a complex undertaking indeed. Appropriate use of language is intricately connected with cultural values,
situations, interlocutors, and other variables. Just teaching formulaic phrases or forcing learners into “the target norm” is not likely to
enhance pragmatic ability. On the other hand, it seems that an
ῌ 66 ῌ
awareness-raising approach can sensitize learners to cultural differences and different variables involved in language use. Hopefully,
learners will be able to apply the pragmatic awareness acquired in
class in whatever setting they may encounter in the future.
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my appreciation to the students of Akenohoshi Women’s Junior College for their cooperation in this study.
The college closed its 31-year-history in March 2003. My gratitude
also goes to Dr. Gwen T. Joy for her valuable comments to improve
this paper.
Notes
ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌ
1
Bachman’s model (1990) of ‘language competence’ is subdivided
into ‘organizational competence’ and ‘pragmatic competence’. Organizational competence comprises ‘grammatical competence’ and
‘textual competence.’ Pragmatic competence subdivides into ‘illocutionary competence’ and ‘sociolinguistic competence.’ The phrase
‘pragmatic aspects’ in the present paper refers to concepts related to
‘pragmatic competence.’
2
EFL (English as a foreign language) learners are those who learn
English mainly in school and have little contact with English outside of the classroom. Japanese students learning English in Japan
are examples of EFL learners. On the other hand, ESL (English as a
second language) learners are those who study English where English is used in daily lives.
ῌ 67 ῌ
3
The basic notion of ‘speech act’ has been introduced by two
philosophers, Austin (1962) and Searle (1969), based on the belief
that language is used to perform actions. In the field of ‘Interlanguage Pragmatics,’ various speech acts, such as apology, requests,
refusals, and compliments, have been studied.
4
Beebe et al. (1990) break down refusal responses into semantic
formulas (those expressions which can be used to perform a refusal)
and adjuncts (expressions which accompany a refusal).
5
Grice (1975) lists “Be brief (avoid prolixity)” as one of the submax-
ims of manner.
6
Brown and Levinson (1987) define ‘face’ as the public self-image
that every member wants to claim for himself. Certain kinds of acts
intrinsically threaten face, and they are called face-threatening acts
(FTAs). Refusal is a FTA which threatens especially the hearer’s
face, and politeness strategies need to be used to minimize FTAs.
7
Austin (1962) subcategorizes speech acts into the following three
component acts:
i. locutionary act ------------ the production of sounds and words
with meanings
ii. illocutionary act ---------- the issuing of an utterance with conventional
communicative
force
achieved “in saying something”
iii. perlocutionary act ----- the actual effect achieved “by saying
something”
The intention of the speaker behind the utterance is called ‘illocu-
ῌ 68 ῌ
tionary force.’ For example, when X says to Y “are you hungryῌ”, X
may intend the question as a request for Y to make X a sandwich.
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Bachman, L. 1990. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing.
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Pragmatics and Language Learning, 7, 21-39. Univ. of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign.
Beebe, L. M., T. Takahashi, and R. Uliss-Weltz. 1990. Pragmatic
transfer in ESL refusals. In S. D. Krashen, R. Scarcella and
E. Andersen (eds.), On the Development of Communicative
Competence in a Second Language, 55-73. Cambridge, MA:
Newbury House.
Blum-Kulka, S. and E. Olshtain. 1986. Too many words: Length of
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Brown, P. and S.C. Levinson. 1987. Politeness: Some Universals in
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Cohen, A. D. 1996. Speech Acts. In S. L. McKay and N. H. Hornberger
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(eds.), Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching, 383-420.
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Coulmas, F. 1981. ‘Poison to your soul’: Thanks and apologies contrastively viewed. In F. Coulmas (ed.), Conversational Routine: Explorations in Standardized Communication Situations
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Ellis, R. 1994. Pragmatic aspects of learner language. In The Study of
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York: Academic Press.
Kasper, G. 1997. Can pragmatic competence be taught῍ (NetWork ῌ
6) ῎HTML document http://www.lll.hawaii.edu/nflrc/Netwww.lll.hawaii.edu/nflrc/NetWorks/NW6/῏. Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii, Second LanWorks/
guage Teaching & Curriculum Center. Accessed October 1,
2003.
Kasper, G. and S. Blum-Kulka. (eds.) 1993. Interlanguage Pragmatics.
Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Kasper, G. and K.R. Rose. 1999. Pragmatics and SLA. Annual Review
of Applied Linguistics, 19, 81-104.
Kimura, K. 1994. The Multiple Functions of Sumimasen. Issues in
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Applied Linguistics, Vol.5 No.2, 279-302.
Kondo, S. 1997. The development of pragmatic competence by
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Kondo, S. 2000. Interlanguage refusals: Facework by Japanese EFL
learners
and
Americans.
Publications
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Akenohoshi
Women’s Junior College, 18, 47-62.
Kondo, S. 2001. Instructional Effects on Pragmatic Development:
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Kumagai, T. 1993. Remedial Interactions as Face-Management: The
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Matsuda: Papers contributed on the occasion of his sixtieth
birthday. Tokyo: Kenkyusha.
Kumatoridani, T. 1993. Hatsuwa kooi taishoo kenkyuu no tame no
toogoteki apurouchi: Nichi-eigo no wabi o rei ni ῌAn integrative approach to contrastive speech-act analysis: A case of
apologies in Japanese and English῍. Nihongo Kyooiku. 79,
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Rose, K.R. 1994. Pragmatic Consciousness-Raising in an EFL Context. In L.F. Buton & Y. Kachru (eds.), Pragmatics and Language Learning Monograph Series, 5, 52-63. Univ. of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign.
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Rose, K.R. and G. Kasper (eds.) 2001. Pragmatics in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Searle, J. R. 1969. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tateyama, Y. 2001. Explicit and implicit teaching of pragmatic
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Tateyama, Y., G. Kasper, L. Mui, H. Tay, and O. Thananart. 1997.
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Yoshida, K., M. Kamiya, S. Kondo, and R. Tokiwa. 2000. Heart to
Heart: Overcoming Barriers in Cross-Cultural Communication.
Macmillan Languagehouse.
ῌ 72 ῌ
Pronunciation and Music
Susan Bergman Miyake
1.
Introduction
In this paper I would like to take the opportunity to discuss the
uses of music in teaching pronunciation, in particular the whys and
the hows of using music to introduce connected speech patterns
(especially reduced speech, contractions and elisions) and to introduce students to ”Global Englishes” (e.g. different varieties of English). I will discuss first what is reduced speech, why it should be
taught, and then finally what music has to offer in this regard.
2.
The Importance of Introducing Reduced Speech
One major challenge in pronunciation for speakers of Japanese
and other “syllable-timed” languages (where the length of an utterance depends on the number of syllables which all take similar
stress) is that English is a “stressed-timed” language-that is, English
has a rhythmic beat which moves from stress to stress, regardless of
how many syllables are in between.
The following example is a good way to demonstrate what this
means to students. Give the following sentences, one at a time, and
clap out the stressed beats. The number of beats will remain the
same regardless of how many syllables are added to the sentence.
(adapted from Celce-Murcia, 1996, p. 152)
73 CATS
CHASE
MICE
The CATS
CHASE
MICE
The CATS
CHASE
the MICE
The CATS
could CHASE
the MICE
The CATS
could have CHASed
the MICE
The CATS
could have been CHASing
the MICE
The CATS
couldn’t have been CHASing
the MICE
Students will see how the content words (in this case, “cats”,
“chase”, “mice”) take the stress and the function words here (the,
could, not, have, been), get progressively reduced or “swallowed up”
(e.g. couldina been for “couldn’t have been”).
The kinds of pronunciation changes that occur in connected
speech (reductions, contractions, and assimilations) due to the stress
timed nature of English present ongoing challenges for non-native
speakers. Assimilation (for example, have to hafta; going to gonna) is often misunderstood as “lazy”, “casual” or “sloppy”. However, it is actually an important feature of English. This is demonstrated in Nina Weinstein’s research. Using recordings of unscripted, educated native speakers, she identifies three levels of
reduced speech (Weinstein, 2001, p. 119):
Level 1: What do you, what do (we / they), what are you
Level 2: whadda you; wha do (we /they); what’re ya
Level 3: whaddaya; whadda; whaddaya
74 Level one speech occurred a mere eight times, level two reductions 47 times, and level three reductions occurred 258 times This
strongly indicates that reduced speech forms are the rule rather
than the exception among educated native speakers.
3.
Student Interest
It can be clearly seen, therefore, that it is important to introduce
reduced speech patterns to students because they are an important
feature of English. Another compelling reason is that students
themselves are very interested. Recent investigations of language
learners’ demands in the field of Teaching English as a Foreign
Language have shown that pronunciation is one of the highestranking aspects of student interest in many different countries
(Willing, 1988). Surveys of Japanese students have also shown a
high interest in learning pronunciation. “According to a survey of
the attitudes of Japanese university students, they.... are more interested in pronunciation training than in learning foreign culture or
foreign literature” (Makarova & Ryan, 2000). Informal surveys that
I have conducted at five junior colleges and universities in the
Kanto area also reveal a very high interest in learning pronunciation.
Moreover, not only is there a high demand for learning pronunciation in general, students are also interested in reduced speech
forms in particular. In surveys conducted at the beginning of the
year, students frequently mention a desire to understand the speech
of native speakers, and to sound like native speakers themselves. In
light of Weinstein’s research on frequency of reduced speech of
75 native speakers, combined with the fact that most students are not
taught about them, I believe reduced speech to be an important
factor in addressing these desires. Students also consistently mention wanting to learn “slang”, which I strongly suspect may also tie
into the reduced speech question, since students also mention on
end-of-the-term course evaluations that they liked learning reduced
speech and want to learn more.
4.
Teaching Reduced Speech
One way to introduce reduced speech is through listening exer-
cises where students listen to conversations containing reduced
forms. Although they practice listening to reduced speech, they
write in standard spelling in order to stress the fact that standard
written form is different from oral English. In the example below,
the student would hear a conversation between two people in a
restaurant. A: “Whaddaya gonna have” B: “Let’s see. I wanna try a
chicken sandwich. “ A: ”I wanna have a cheeseburger and some fries.
Whadda you wanna drink” While listening, they would fill in as
below:
A:
have
(Writes: What are you going to)
B:
Let’s see. I
try a chicken sandwich.
(Writes: Want to)
A: I
have a cheeseburger and some fries.
drink
(writes: want to, what do you want to)
76 (Adapted from Weinstein, 2001, p. 22)
5.
Using Music in Pronunciation Teaching
In addition, I have found using music in pronunciation can also
be a great way to look at reductions. There are several reasons to
use music in pronunciation class. Pronunciation has been called the
Cinderella of ELT (being locked away and out of sight). One of the
criticisms of pronunciation teaching is that it is thought to be
boring. Perhaps this is due to the dominant image of audio-lingual
methods drilling minimal pairs. Another complaint by some teachers has been that pronunciation is “imperialistic”, or imposes a
monolithic and unreachable North American (sometimes British)
“standard” on the rest of the world. Music, on the other hand, can
address both of these concerns. Music can offer a wide range of
different kinds of English. “Standard” as well as regional American
and British popular music is, of course, readily available as are
reggae, gospel or many other varieties of English from around the
world. Yet another compelling rational for using music in class is
the fact that it is deeply enjoyable (by college students in particular)
is relaxing, and holds students’ interest and attention. Since students often express anxiety about their pronunciation and can,
consequently, contribute to a fear of speaking, music can be an
effective tool for lowering their affective filter (e.g. reduce stress and
anxiety) and facilitating learning. In short, music offers a fun,
non-drill based way to introduce varieties of authentic English.
Music also offers a great way to look at reductions and elisions
in connected speech. One way to use music in class is to create cloze
exercises with the target language (function words, reduced speech,
77 contractions, assimilations) blanked out. Students often seem to
find these exercises both enjoyable and challenging. Students can
be asked to write in standard spelling in order to emphasize the
difference between the correct written form and spoken English.
Usable material is rife in many songs, as can be seen in the examples
are excerpted below:
This Little Light of Mine (American Gospel)
This little light of mine,
I’m
(gonna/going to) let it shine. (x3)
Ev’ry day, ev’ry day, ev’ry day, ev’ry day
(gonna / going to) let my little light shine
Blowing in the Wind (Bob Dylan)
Yes
(’n /and) How many roads must a man walk down,
before they call him a man
Yes
How many seas must a white dove sail,
before it sleeps in the sand
Yes
How many times must a cannonball fly,
before they are forever banned
The answer, my friend is blowing in the wind,
the answer is blowing in the wind.
Aimee (Pure Prairie league)
(chorus)
Aimee
(whatchyu/ what do you)
(wanna/want to) do
I think I could stay with you, for a while, maybe longer if I do.
78 Tears in Heaven (Eric Clapton) (chorus)
(wouldjyu/ would you) know my name,
if I saw you in heaven
(wouldjyu/would you) feel the same,
if I saw you in heaven
I must be strong, and carry on, cause I know I don’t belong,
here in heaven.
Comes a Time (Neil Young)
It’s
(gonna/going to) take
(a
lotta/a lot of) love
To change the way things are.
It’s
(gonna/going to) take
(a
lotta/a lot of) love
Or we won’t get too far.
6.
Conclusion
Music is a great method of introducing reduced speech forms of
connected English. It has the potential to address students’ ongoing
concerns about wanting to understand native speakers and wanting
to sound more like native speakers. It also offers a way to lower
their anxiety about pronunciation in particular, and speaking in
general, by providing a non-threatening, enjoyable context. Music
can also address the concerns of some teachers about pronunciation
being too boring or imperialistic by providing lively and authentic
context in which the possibilities for variety are unlimited.
7.
Bibliography
Celce-Murcia, M.; Brinton, D.; Goodwin, J. (1996). Teaching Pro-
79 nunciation; a Reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages; Cambridge University Press
Makarova, V. & Ryan, S. (2000). Language teaching attitudes from
learners’ perspectives: a cross-cultural approach. Speech Communication Education, Vol. 23, pp. 135-165.
Weinstein, N. (2001). Whaddaya Say; Guided Practice in Relaxed
Speech, Longman, p. 119.
Willing, K. (1988). Learning styles in adult migrant education, Adelaide: National Curriculum Resource Centre.
80 ῌ
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OECD Employment Outlook 1995, 2000
96 ῏
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The small number of articles in this issue of the Faculty Bulletin is really a positive
sign of the dedication of our teachers. During this academic year all of the faculty
have been seriously engaged in curriculum and structural reforms to meet the
challenges of the changing social and educational environment of the nation. The
faculty who have presented their research here have done so while also meeting
increasing demands for preparation for new courses, participating in numerous
working groups and other important and time consuming assignments. We are
grateful for their dedication and willingness to add to their burdens in sharing their
research and thoughts.
(Michael N. Joy)
(English Materials Editor)
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