Skill Learning

Using Research on Learning to Help People Learn
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Further, research in cognitive psychology (e.g., Bjork, 1979, 1999; Pashler, Rohrer, &
Cepeda, 2006) suggests that students will retain more of what they learn if they study
in several sessions distributed over time rather than in a single “cramming” session on
the night before a test. To encourage this kind of “distributed practice,” researchers say,
teachers should give enough exams and quizzes (some unannounced, perhaps) that
students will be reading and studying more or less continuously. And because learning
is aided by repeated opportunities to use new information, these exams and quizzes
should cover material from throughout the term, not just from recent classes. These
recommendations are not necessarily popular with students, but there is good evidence
that they promote long-term retention of course material (e.g., Bjork, 1999, 2001).
Active Learning
Using a virtual
reality system called “Surgery in 3-D,”
this medical student can actively learn
and practice eye surgery skills before
working with real patients. Computerbased human body simulators are also
giving new doctors active learning
experience in emergency room diagnosis
and treatment; in heart, lung, and
abdominal surgery; and other medical
skills (Groopman, 2005).
VIRTUAL SURGERY
The importance of cognitive processes in learning is apparent in instructional methods
that emphasize active learning (Bonwell & Eison, 1991). These methods take many
forms, including, for example, small-group problem-solving tasks, discussion of “oneminute essays” written in class, use of “thumbs up” or “thumbs down” to indicate
agreement or disagreement with the instructor’s lecture, and multiple-choice questions
that give students feedback about their understanding of the previous fifteen minutes
of a lecture (Goss Lucas & Bernstein, 2005; Heward, 1997). Students typically find
classes that include active learning experiences to be interesting and enjoyable (Moran,
2000; Murray, 2000). In addition, active learning methods help students go beyond
memorizing isolated facts. These methods encourage students to think more deeply, to
consider how new material relates to what they already know, and to apply it in new
situations. This kind of thinking also makes the material easier to remember, which is
why we have included so many opportunities for you to actively learn, rather than just
passively read, the material in this book.
Studies of students in elementary schools, high schools, community colleges, and
universities have found that active learning approaches result in better test performance
and greater class participation compared with more passive instructional techniques
(e.g., Hake, 1998; Kellum, Carr, & Dozier, 2001; Meyers & Jones, 1993). In one study,
a fifth-grade teacher spent some days calling only on students whose hands were raised.
On other days, all students were required to answer every question by holding up a
card with their response written on it. Scores on next-day quizzes and biweekly tests
showed that students remembered more of the material covered on the active learning
days than on the “passive” days (Gardner, Heward, & Grossi, 1994). In another study
of two consecutive medical school classes taught by the same instructor, scores on the
final exam were significantly higher when students learned mainly through small-group
discussions and case studies than when they were taught mainly through lectures (Chu,
1994). Similarly, among adults being taught to use a new computer program, active
learning with “hands-on” practice was more effective than passively watching a demonstration video (Kerr & Payne, 1994). Finally, high school and college students who passively listened to a physics lecture received significantly lower scores on a test of lecture
content than did those who participated in a virtual reality lab that allowed them to
“interact” with the physical forces covered in the lecture (Brelsford, 1993).
Results like these have fueled the development of other science education programs
that place students in virtual laboratory environments in which they actively manipulate materials and test hypotheses (e.g., Horwitz & Christie, 2000). Despite the enthusiasm generated by active learning methods, rigorous experimental research is still
needed to compare their short- and long-term effects with those of more traditional
methods in teaching various kinds of course content.
Skill Learning
The complex action sequences, or skills, that people learn to perform in everyday life
develop through learning processes that include feedback and, of course, lots of practice. In fact, practice—the repeated performance of a skill—is critical to mastery (Howe,
Davidson, & Sloboda, 1998). For perceptual-motor skills such as playing pool or piano,