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Pearlmutter D., Erell
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and
ha! Environment
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Report.
o
，
md Planning Research, accepted for publication,1990
Y
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Ecelu E, MeuC 汀几
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一
Stzion,Y., "A house in the Desert",IsraelEnergy News, M
energy in cooperation with the Israel Petroleum and En
instiuite. May 1991. Invited.
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Urban and Regional Development Strategies in a Desert Environment
Three Case-Studies in Israel's Negev Desert
YchudaGRADUS* and Eliahu STERN**
Abstract - The present study examines three man-built settlement projects in Israel's Ncgcv
desert - the entire Negev settlement system, the internal structure of towns and
neighborhoods,and Bedouin urban settlements - in the light of the urban and regional
concepts applied in their planning and development.Preconceivedurban models cannot
simply be transplanted to arid zones; the planning process and its implementationmust be
responsive to the unique human and physical environmentsinvolved
―
Key words: regionaldevelopment,urban planning,indigenousnomads, Negcv
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throughout
successes
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and
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The oresent
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environment's constraints. What happens when the modernman-built environmentinteracts with the
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98
87
of Beer Sheva (Gradus 1978). The school of thought prevalent among Israeli planners of the new towns
was
that of garden-cities (Howard 1965) divided into neighborhoodunits. The idea of creatinga rural
atmosphere in an urban environmentwhile keeping contact with the land, one of the major concepts
behind the garden-city movement, greatly appealed to leaders and planners of the Zionist socialist
movement,
and to the local leadership and founders of Beer Sheva, who were veteran members of the
socialistagriculturalsector.
Europeangarden-cities
were
planned for low densityhousing arranged in homogeneous,
semi-self-
sufficient neighborhoodunits, each with its own schools, shops, libraries, communitycenters and the
like. Internal winding streets would be built, unrelated to the transportation system of the other
neighborhoodsand the city as a whole, and each neighborhoodwould be surrounded by a 'green belt'
These principles were applied in Beer Sheva as well as other Negev new towns. What was created
however was a dispersed city composedof quarters remote and detached from one another, with no
physical or social links betweenthem. Instead of homogeneous communities,conclaves of ethnic and
occupational structure formed. There was a lack of architectural diversity, of urban consolidation. The
dispersionof servicesandthe winding roadsnecessitatedlargemunicipal expenditures,createdproblems of
communication and orientation, and required residents to walk long distances in the desert heat. The
undevelopedvacant areas designated 'green belts' between neighborhoods
created internal deserts within
the city, lesseningthe urban feeling.
By the early 1960s, it had becomeevident that the garden-city concept was inapplicable to Beer
Sheva's desert environment
and its soci0-culturalreality. The new readjustmentpolicies placed the
emphasis on consolidating the city, condensing it, and thus transforming it into an organic unit
functioning as a single economic and social entity. In a desert environment,an integratedplanning
approach is preferableto the autonomousdispersed-neighborhood
units approach.Multi-storied housing
S
L
A
built, primary and secondary arteries were constructed within and between neighborhoods
to facilitate
5匹
don
trafnlc,andalI 口祖 Swe ほ 山口口 atoneaxischanneling山e Ciヴ '5
was
Twelve years after the implementationof thegarden-city concept in Beer Sheva, the town of Arad was
founded 40 km to the east. This time the desert environmentwas studied carefully and the entire planning
was done on location, adopting a more practical and realistic approach
JA
The last case study is that of the urban settlements planned for the Negev's indigenous nomadic
Bedouinpopulation, now numberingsome 90,000
The Negev Bedouin belong to twenty-five tribes scattered over an area of 1000 sqkm, mainly in the
: 鰐
ggZL3 LLL;
描;The
Ov
三
三廿
ま
孟
三
，、 芯
三三
; ぽ hぼ，， 乱
，ぷ日 ぼ互 8堪 ;
but has only recently become a planning problem(Musham 1970). The Bedouin's scattered pattern of
permanent and semi-permanent
spontaneous settlements has conflicted with development
programs for the
，
。
，
・，
・
、
regional
Negev,
partly
services.
because
The
Israeli
ofinefficient
government
useofhas
space,
therefore
and
hampered
been
attempting
-and
rendered
toresettle
more
the
costly
Bedouin
-the
in
supply
planned
of
urban settlements fanning an integral pan of a regional developmentprogram
Formingman-built environmentsfor indigenous nomadscan be potentially disruptive to their whole
important
interaction;
cultural
(2)settlements
elements:
(3)
and
affective
dwellings
and
perceived
must
been
density
seen
in
should
context
berelated
and
allow
totraditions.
forpreservation
of
Israel's first
develop
urban settlement populated solely by former nomads- Tel Sheva.
; 三お
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Bee;
月h::a
- 毘g。ゑ才篇拭
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こよば
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三
to
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。
，
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ぽ三ぜ祐芝
・
F* latF In
届x鞘鞘芽盟話
呈ヂぜ浦
き苦
三 まま
!
まき 目ま茸卜壬山員蕊革目澄壬田蕉
88
;gR
pSo >u
vDanvu
l@loorl
紅 千三 L 二 料
れ三 牡畔北X詔推 比三 闘 日比 誌 Rば 日碓ば 紫
山 Xぽ江
thanhusbandly or agriculture.
Te1-Sheva's master plan has been revised according to Rabat's responsive planning concepts and
standards,and threemore Bedouintowns in the vicinityhavebeenso developed,implementingwhathas
proven to be successfulplanned sedentarization
of nomads(Stem andGradus 1979).
Eぎほ
。
レぬ
The threecase-studies examinedabove demonstratethereal andpotentialproblems arisingdue to the
application of transplanted urban andregionaldevelopmentconcepts the CentralPlace andGardenCity
models- originating in differentculturalandenvironmentalconditionsto a fragilearid humanecosystem.
The transplanted models reflectedthe Zionist ideologyof 'back to the land' without considering what
'land' means in the desert,whereWestern spatia1,physicaland social standardsproved unrealisticand
･
inappropriate
Analysisof Israel'sexperience
in formulating
andimplementingdevelopment
policiesin its Negev
desertcan contributeto futuredevelopmentprojectsin aridzones, andshowshowdesertplanningmustbe
sensitiveto local needs andconditionsandfacilitatea frameworkfor continuous response andinteraction
between the variouselements of the aridsystem.
―
Ben-Gurion,D. (1956): 'Southward'. 1956Annual Report. Jerusalem:Governmentof Israe1.
Christaller,W. (1933): 'Die zentralenOne in Suddeutschland', trans.by C.W. Baskin, 1957,as
Central Places in Southern Germany,EnglewoodCliffs, N.J.:PrenticeHal1.
Gradus, Y. (1978): 'Beer Sheva, Capitalof theNegev: DesertFunctionand InternalStructure',
GeoJoumal2,521-532.
Gradus, Y. andStern,E. (1980): 'Changing Strategiesof Development:Towarda Regiopolisin the
NegevDesert', AmericanPlanning Assoc.46,410-424
S
L
A
How 町d E (1965):Ganden CfffesorTomorroww,Cambndge,MaSs
『
MI T
SS
V H (1970):'Seden 口 donof 山eeBedouininI 茄可 ' 市 S N.Ei5enS 田 t R B 町-YO5ef
andC. Adier (cds.).Integration and Development
in Israe1,New York: Praeger,pp. 618-633
Rapoport. A. (1978): 'Nomadismas a Man-Environment
System', Environmentand Behavior 10, 215-
M瓜
，
・
・
・
JA
・
，
・
・
・
・
・
，
，
246.
Rapoport, A. (1979): 'An Approachto Designing Third WorldEnvironments'. Third WorldPlanning
Review 1, 23-40.
Stern.E. and Gradus. Y. (1979): 'Socio CulturalConsiderations in Planning Townsfor Nomads',
Ekisttcs 277, pp. 224-230
t^BBt
r,S, 89-94(1995)
Journal of Arid Land Studies
Trans-Saharan Wind Rows Observed on Meteosat 4 Satellite Image
Monique Mainguet* & Frederic Dumay *
Abstract
- Thanks to the use of Meteosat imagery the relationships between the dry ecosystems of
Sahara-Sahel and Sudan along one unique Global Wind Action System and the rain forest are
detected.
Key words : Remotesensing, Meteosat, Aeolian actions. Rain forest
The Meteosat 4 Infra-red satellite image of January 3th 1992 (METEO FRANCE CMS LANNION), thanks
to its scale of 1: 26 000 000, shows a dust and sand storm over the Central and Eastern parts of the Sahara
and the Sahel (27-30｡N) until the tropical margin of the Guinean zone (5 to 10｡N), along a distance of 3
000km (Fig 1).
Our first objective, similar to the studies carried during the late 1970's (Mainguet, Cossus et Chapelle,
1980), consists of a synthesis of the figures of aeolian activity visible on satellite imagery, and of a
determination of the mega-venturis and their effects on aeolian circulation. The second part showshow
the wind currents are organised around the Saharan and Sahelian mega-0bstacles(Mainguet, Cheminet
Borde, 1985). In third part analyses the eastern Saharan wind and sand flow and finally tries to show
that the limit of savannah-forest is dependenton aeolian dynamics
脚
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We have called GWAS (Mainguet 1992) an aeolian dynamical system where particles are deflated or
winnowed, transportedby suspension,saltation, reptation and creeping and finally accumulated
in loess
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sheets,
ecosystems
sand
are
veneers,
located
dunes,
inone
dune
unique
fields,
Global
and
Wind
sand
Action
seas.
System
How
the
ata
Sahara,
synoptic
the
scale
Sahel
inand
which
even
are
the
embodied
Sudan
secondary smaller local to regional wind action systems, will be seen. On the satellite image in the area of
wind activity
different features can be observed
1.1. Areas where narrow strips with high reflectance alternate with strips of low reflectance as observed
between the Ahaggar mountainand the Tibesti mountain. They were understood in the previous analysis
as areas of dominant transport associated with wind activity, essentially consisting of corrasionof stony
plateaux (mainly sandstone), giving a landscape of yardangs and kaluts (aerodynamically carved rocks)
(Mainguet, Chemin 1990)
1.2. Areas of high reflectance characteristic of active sand
seas
with imprecise boundaries on the satellite
images because of escaping sand plumesprecisely at the moment of the registration of the image in the erg
of Fachi Bilma and Haoussa.
1.3. Topographic obstacles responsible for specific aeolian patterns
as
- divergencesupwards of the relief: the best exampleis located upwards of the set of Ennedi/JebelMarra;
-Areas of average reflectance immediatelyleewards of a major obstacle which are shelter areas, the most
spectacular being leewards of Air with a length of 500 km.
-Figures of convergence, for exampleleewards the Jebel Marra
1.4. The mega-venturies. A venturi is defined as a constriction in a channel conducting fluids, which
locally produces a pressure decrease and therefore an acceleration of the fluid, which leads to a greater
kinetic energy and therefore to a great erosion and transport potential (Mainguet, Borde, Chemin 1985)
When two topographicalreliefs are not too distant: 300-400 ト@ as for the Tibesti and the Ennedi; in the
corridor between them appears a neck where the pressure is low and the speed higher according to the
Bernoulli law. In this furrow the wind has carved the most prestigious system of kaluts of the planet in
the paleozoicsandstones of Borku.
*Laboratoire de Geographic Zonale, University de Reims Champagne-Ardenne
Taittinger, 51 100 Reims, France
-, 57, Rue Pierre
90
The description of these main aeolian figures leads to an analysis of the behaviour of wind in the Central
Sahara (Mainguet 1976).
w
川
爪
寸
n
八
LI
Maior Obstacle,
The comprehensive central Saharan aeolian dynamics is ordered by one mega-0bstacle, the unity
Ahaggar-Tassili with a surfaceof 203350km2,more than 3000m high (average 1800m) and to the south
the Air massif of 66150km^with a maximumaltitudeof 1500m (Mainguet, Canon1977)
2.1. In 1979 (Mainguet, Cossus et Chapelle, 1980) the Meteosat Images, through aeolian figures have
shown a wind flow beginning south of 29｡N (Edeyen de Marada), curved around the eastemside of the
plateau dominated by the Jebel El Aswad, crossing the eastern half of Murzuksand sea, and the Djado
plateau before being oriented ENE-WSW in direction of Air and divided in two branches, the southern one
rejoining the Tenere
2.2. On Meteosat 4 Image of 1992 the wind current is a sand and dust current. The load in aerosols is not
dense enough to hide totally the soil surface which stays visible. The material which flows in transit in
direction of the unit Tassili-Ahaggar, carried by the harmattan wind, starts as those of the 1970's in the
sand seas of Marrada and Kalansho and continues towards the Rebiana sand sea which seems to have lost
a part of its surface since the observation of 1979. There, the diachronic analysis of the images of 1979 and
of 1992 allows us to propose a new hypothesis of a slight loss of surface of the deposits of the Central
Saharansand seas simultaneousto drought.
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The plateau of Djado 500 km in the N-S direction shows an intense wind activity mainly of corrasion
giving a kalut landscape. More leewards, the Air massif produces a subdivisionof harmattan wind in two
branches. The most southern one flows south of Air in the direction of the major sahelian E-W aeolian
system, prolonging the Tibesti-Ennedi venturi system until 7｡ E. There is presently a quasi continuity of the
aeolian transport between 16｡E (Erg Bilma) until 0 ｡, located at 800 L ロ leeward of the Air (Mainguet 1972).
On the 1979 image such a continuity at this latitude was not visible
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low of
In 1979 the major Saharanaeolian eastern flow started in the Qattara depression, then widened, running
in the Great Sand Sea of Egypt to the boundaryof Libya from the Nile Valley until the eastern face of
Tibesti through the Gilt Kebir. After turning around the eastern face of Tibesti, at the latitude of the
Tropic of Cancer, the current curved before crossing the Erg of Bilma and Tenere acquiring then an E-W
direction until lake Debo south of the curve of the river Niger. Meteosat 4 of 1992 confirms these patterns
North of Jebel Oueinat 23｡N, the air is full of dust but the soil surface is visible. South of this latitude the
density is too high to show the whole surface. OL the image of 1992, the wind currents have three main
sets of characteristics
3.1. The continuity of the currents from 30｡N to the southern Sahel (Mainguet et Guy 1975) : the
convergence of the two aeolian flows, which have the same origin north of Egypt at the latitude of the
Qa radepreSsion,islocat 口 atthenor 山 oof山eCentralAf 「iCan Republic 口 u 山 ofChad and Sudan
e
track on the soil surface of this aeolian current is linked by areas of reflectance which are deflation areas,
，
others where kaluls
are
・
dominant and which are areas of corrasion
3.2. In 1979 the aeolian sand transport was visible only on the western bank of the Nile; in 1992 it is
visible on the two banks, and it seems, that the aeolian flow is able to transport its load of particles across
the valley. Between 10 and 15｡N. a larger part of the Nile is hidden by the migrating particles. This
transport affects the whole curve of the Nile which is at a right angle to the aeoliancurrent, confirming
how much the valley and the agriculturalactivitiesare threatenedby encroachingsand
3.3. The effects of the mega-0bstacles: Tibestf-Ennedi-Jebel Marra (Fig 2). Leewardof the Tibesti-Ennedi
venturi, at the latitude of Chad lake, the most oriental flow from the GWAS Sahara-Sahelis divided in
two branches, one with a N-S directiondrawing a wide circle (Fig 3). The other branch, north of Chad
lake, has an east-west direction which can be followed on Meteosat 4 until Mali where the river Niger
91
draws its curve at the latitude of Gao (16｡N, 0 ｡). There,the aeolian flow reaches the Niger valley before
crossing it and feeding the sand sea east of Aoukar.
In 1979, the analysis of Meteosat of 28 February has allowed description of the aeolian flows on the soil
surface in the Sahara and its Sahelian boundaries (Mainguet, Cossus et Chapelle,1980)and to follow the
most meridional extension of these currents.
On Meteosat 4 in East Africa the hannattan has its longest trajectoryof 7 000 km, from 27｡N (North of
)t)
3m)-jebel
until
12
｡Marra(3088
NJebel
Marra.
m).
Upward
The
first
of
mega-topographic
these
two
massifs
obstacle
the
current
met
is
by
divided
this
flow
inis
two
the
branches.
unit
Ennedi
The
肋側
divergence reaches a maximum width of 780 km and a length of also 780 km with the convergenceat 9 ｡N
The western branch has a NE-SW direction until Chad lake (13 ｡ N, 13｡E) where it curves towards the
south. This curve was not visible on the 1979documents
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It is in Uganda (3 ｡N) that the aeolian flow has its longest meridional extension. Therefore the
hypothesis can be proposed of a progression of aeolian dynamics towards the equatorial zone : the
farthest extension being visible in NE Cameroon,the Central African Republic,Sudan, north Zaire, and
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Uganda between 3 and 5 N
｡
This limit is visible on Meteosat 4 through the difference in reflectance, the savannah having a lower
reflectance than the forest. West of the African continent the limit appears in Guinea (12｡ N), then,
towards the east, it slides at 10｡N in northern Ivory Coast (10 ｡N, 7 ｡W) then further east it approaches
irregularly the equator until 5 ｡N. In south Sudan(5｡N) aeolian activities can be detectedat the limit of
savannah-forestby the existence of periodical strikes
ce
the
1977)
山寸
爪
of
the
publicat
(Maing
prop
previous
ehypothesis
The northern limit of evergreen forest has its most southern location precisely at the confluence of the two
peri-JebelMarra branches, SE of the massif. At 15｡E, in the Central African Republic, the northern limit
of the evergreen forest is at 5 ｡N. In SE Sudan, the limit is further north (Juba forest) near 10｡N and 22｡E
Further east the limit is in Uganda; the northern limit is located on the equator. It is also there that the
GWAS has the largest extension towards the south
Saharan sand seas, with a negative sediment balance,were losing their material to the benefit of the
meridional sand seas, is confirmed in 1992
In the Sahe1, where the NE-SW aeolian flows are becoming E-W, after a curve at the latitude of the
Tropic of Cancer, exists a vast area of reattachmentwhere areas of deposition, with a positive sediment
balance,have been developed. Since the beginning of the second half of the twenty century, in the fifties,
according to observation of aerial photographies(FAO 1956-57Tichit NE 29-XV n 081-82-83), areas of
｡
positive sediment balance are becomingareas of negative sediment balance caused by land degradation
and aeolian erosion
e 山 n 甘 nui サ
@ On *veral 山ou 臼 ndkiIometerSof 山 ea 山 lian currentshouIdberelat 田川 小山e5uCC卜寸o1
of topographical mega-0bstacles which create venturi systems where the speed of the aeolian flows is
テ
increased, inducing sequences of systems leading to its self maintenance.
We have seen that aeolian export of desert dust is reaching the rain forest and so enrich the fertility of
the soi1.For example, the soils of the tropical rain forest along the Gulf of Guinea and along the Nile
92
Valley owe their fertility largely to wind deposit and not just to silt deposition by the Nile River,
This study demonstratesthe interdependanceof all the ecozones north of the equator, and requiresfrom
the managers interested in combatingwind erosion a special attention to the whole GWAS and not only a
―
I。 司
。 ne
Mainguet M., 1972. Etude d'un erg (Fachi-Bilma, Sahara central). Son alimentation sableuse et son
insertion dans Ie paysage d'apres les photographiesprises par satellites. Compte-Rendu Academic des
Sciences, Paris, 1274,13mars, Serie D, pp. 1633-1636.
MainguetM., Guy M., 1975.Apport des images par satellitemeteorologiqueNOAA3 dans 1'observation
des grands courants de materiel 60lien, et dans les relations de dependancedes ergs au Sahara. Phot0Interpretation, Ed. Technip, Paris, 1974-4/1 & 6, (2e partie), pp 23-52
Mainguet
1976. La circulation du sable au Sahara (diagnostic d'apres les images satellites)
consequencessur la desertification. Geomorphologieet Paleogeographie, section l/23e Congres
International de Geographic,Moscou,pp. 182-187,
Mainguet M., Canon L., 1977. Faction du vent dans les paysages arides d'Afrique nord-6quatoriale vue par
les satellites. Colloque GDTA "Utilisation des satellites en teledetection", Saint-Mande, 21-23 Sept
1977, pp. 307-318.
Mainguet M., 1977. Analyse quantitative de 1'extremite sahelienne du courant eolien transporteur de sable
au Sahara nigerien. Compte-Rendu Academiedes Sciences,Paris, 1285,24 oct., S6rie. D, pp. 1029-1032.
S
L
A
Mainguet M., Cossus L., Chapelle A.M., 1980.Utilisation des images Meteosat pour preciser les
trajectoires eoliennes au sol au Sahara et sur les marges saheliennes : interpretation des documents
Meteosat du 28 mat 1978 au 9 fevrier 1979. Societe Francaise de Photogrammetrieet de Teledetection,
BuMe甘 nn
Mainguet
8 pp l 12
M., Borde J.M., Chemin M.C, 1985.Sedimentationeolienne au Sahara et sur ses marges. Les
images M6teosat et Landsat, outil pour 1'analysedes t&noignagesg^odynamiques du transport eolien. In
Le vent, mecanisme d'erosion, de degradation, de desertification. Notions d'echelle, de budget
sedimentaire, de vulnerabilite des paysages. Travaux de 1'Institut de Geographicde Reims, n ｡59-60, pp.
。ア
，
・
A
J
・
15-27.
Mainguet M., Chemin M.C., Borde J-M., 1985. Etude du r61e des obstacles topographiques dans la
circulation eolienne d'apres les images satellites et les photographiesaeriennes, de I'echelle continentale
& celle de la butte temoin. Mediterranee, Teledetection II1,T. 54, n 1-2, pp. 11-19.
Mainguet M., Chemin M.C., 1990.Le Massif du Tibesti dans Ie systeme 60lien du Sahara. Reflexion sur la
｡
genese du Lac Tchad. BerlinerGeographischeStudien,Band30,pp. 261-276.
Mainguet M., 1992. A Global Open Wind Action System : the Sahara and the Sahe1.pp. 33-42,The first
International Conference on Geologyof the Arab World, ed. A. Sadek, RemoteSensing Session,January 1923,1992. vo1.2,548 p
93
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basis for the design and construction of shelter system on one hand* and compensates
the blanks in the related scientific knowledgeof Taklimakan Desert
Two meterological observatories were set
up
on
the other hand
in Xiaotang and Mancan in 1992 to collect the
basic climatic information of the inner part of Taklimakan Desert. In the following 2 years,
I卜@htは oofDQsqrtR
口 04 「 ch
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Ch@nQsoAc4dQmyo[
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寸i4onpQ5,Lan 山oI0u7300ooP
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(Pax@+86-931-8889960)
various
96
field
observations were
of sand flux distribution
measurement
ground surfaces,
fences.
conducted along the northern section of the highway.
the air flow
and transport rate on different
sites of dunes and different
pattern of different roadbed sections, and the effects
As a result tens of thousand of data sets were collected.
types of sand dunes observation pins were installed
movement
(<|)=3. 52).
on
the
the movement rate
of
in Xiaotang. Morphological
monitored in 2 patches of sample fields
were
aeolian sands of Taklimakan
of sand control
The simulation expeximent
turbulence of sand laden wind was conducted in a wind tunne1. T0 measure
different
These included
changes and
to estimate aeolian sand intensity.
Desert are mainly fine or very fine, with mean
The
diameter of 0. 087mm
Therefore sand movement is relatively easily initiated by wind. The annual total
duration of wind speeds over the initiation
threshold ranges
sandy days. Sand movement mainly occurs
in spring and summer,
characteristics of wind and heat coincidence. As far
as
from 28140min
ﾑ 39330mm,
with 70
having the temporal distribution
its spatial pattern is concerned, sand activity
gradually intensifies to the inner part. The RDD (resultant drift direction) is mainly NNE along the
ﾑ 10m in Xiaotang.
northern section and ENE along the southern section.
3
Small sand dunes of 1. 0
ﾑ 1. 5m high
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15m in Mancan,
6ﾑ
and an estimated 20m in TZ.
move
The estimated annual
sand flux across the highway is 2692t/km in Xiaotang and 4322t/km in Mancan. Sands mainly
concentrate in the lower part, those of 0
ﾑ 20cm accounting for 98%,
and 0
ﾑ 10cm 80ﾑ 95%.
Aeolian sand disasters fall into 2 categories, wind erosion and deposition, which are the instant
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behavior of air flow and dependent on the saturation condition of the sand drift. When the air flows
are
saturated with sand, deposition occurs,
below saturation erosion occurs.
The saturation condition
is determined by wind velocity and sand supply. The rate of sand drift fluctuate frequently,
the process
of aeolian landform
formation and evolution,
deposition along the desert highway.
does
as
and the rate of wind erosion and sand
The above mentioned instant behavior of sand drift was
postulated through our work. However,
sand drift is also influenced by many
moisture content of sands, grain size, and vegetation
coverage.
other factors,
first
such as
The general theory of sand
movement must be explained by multi-variate mathematicalmodels. Based on this theory the aeolian
dynamic zones
on
different geomorphologicalunit
2. Many trials and selections
consists
As
are
be discerned along the highway.
needed to develop the optimum sand control system, which mainly
of mechanical stabilization,
soon as
can
combined withretardation, transportation and deviation
the project began, researchers decided to test technigues which had proved successful
in the eastern part of
our
country. A shelter system with Chinese characteristics was recommended.
Mechanical measures are used to guarantee the highway's operation,
establish
new
scientific,
ecological systems and chemical measures
biological measures are used to
supplement the other tw0.
and 30km of industrial experiment, the basic principles
were
identified
After 2 km of
on
the basis of
aeolian sand activity along the highway. A set of techniques consisting of "prevention, retardation,
stabilization,
transportation and deviation"
was
introduced. According to their basic principles the
ﾈ
mechanical sand-stabilization belt of straw checkboard can be divided into 3 types: (1) totally closed;
( 2) partly closed; ( 3) totally exposed.The optimumwidth of the protection system is under
investigation.
It is dependent
on
its structure,
type,
expected duration and the materials used.
Considering the situation at Taklimakan, researchers revised the previous formula to estimate the
97
optimum
width of the shelter
system. Consequently
the maximum
which can be reduced or increased on the basis of sand disaster
width is estimated to be 100m
intensity and direction.
Meanwhile
design standards have also been regulated.
3. The economictarget regulated by the contract
stabilization
met by introducing seven
was
Stabilization of the dune ridges by sand-1aden bags to prevent
checkboard using crushed reeds, stabilization
chemnical fixer,
new
sand
materia1. These included
of shifting
dunes from movement,
straw
sand using annual herbaceous plants, L
ﾑP
poly compound chemical fixer and nylon network fences. Crushedreeds and nylon
network fences are widely used along the highway. Other techniques are under further test.
Rainfall
in Taklimakan
Desert generally
occured 29. 6mm of precipitation
Making full use of the rainfall
within straw
vegetation
even
checkboards,
coverage
30%.
over
15%
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of the land surface.
Vegetation residues
is a world-wide
along the Tarim Desert Highway
transportation, and the related research work is highly praised.
points in need of furthur research.
there
annual herbaceous plant seeds
In some
can
problem, requiring selection
plays
areas
also bring sand stabilization
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Sand drifting
construction.
system
concentrated. For example,
researchers have sown
resulting in a coverage
when the plant is withered.
but very
May 30, 1992, accounting for 56% of the annual tota1.
characteristics,
amounted to 20 ﾑ
this kind of engineering
The shelter
on
is rare
a
very
trongh
important role in
However there do exist many
weak
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the whole Project, a sum of 323 million tons of abandonedmaterials will be disposed, of which
60 percent enter river channels directly.
It added new soil losses to the base which had had high
wind and soil erosion. According to the data from the runoff stations in Shenmu. Gaoshiya and
Wangdaoheng, before the exploitationthe mining area transported as much as 23.17 million tons
of sediment to the Yellow River annually.On average 31.038
milliontons of sediment entered
the Yellow River each year in the first stage of Exploitation Project and the increased sediment
was 7.868 million tons which accounted
for 34 percent of the amountof original sediment. In a
water rich year(P=20%),
crease
it was as much as 42.218 million tons. a 19. 048 million tons inﾂ
whichaccounted for 82.21 percent of the amountof original sediment. If the trend contin-
ues, transportation to the Yellow River in the second stage will be 35. 492 million tons and the
increased sediment will be 12. 322 million tons which will account for 53. 28 percent of the
amount of original sediment. In a water rich year the amount will be 48.258 million tons. which
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will account for 108.3 percent of the annual average
amountof original sediment. On account of
the abandonedmaterials of exploitation and sediment produced by erosion, the riverbed of Wuianmulun river, which is the branch of the Yellow River passing through the Exploitation region,
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has been heightened 4 metres above the former river course. The torrential rain on 21st July.
1989 made 17 pits and 9 open ﾑ pits along the channel break down, and the railways destroyed
by f100ds resulted in an over one month breakoff of transportation.
In another f100d that took
place in August, 1992, 13 thousand ha. farmland and grassland as well as dams were destroyed.
The f100d level in the streets and schools of the mining area was over one metre deep. The di-
reel loss caused by these two f100ds only was 27 million RMB yuan
3 The CountermeaSure
・
During the long period of combat with the sand, people living in the Yulin prefecture have
learned the laws of sand flow and invented a set of combating technologies that give first place
to biological control which combinestechnical measures.
When they combat with the sand, they
have followed the principle of taking measures and setting precautionsin the light of local condi ﾂ
tions and disasters.
Biological control is the planting of tree and grass according to the above
mentioned principle. Unified planning about farmland, rivers, forests and roads should be used to
coordinate with belt, network and sheet forests in a premise of "right tree on right site" and forming a combatingsystem of multiple species and forest types. Technical measures include con ﾂ
struction of anti
ﾑ wind
hedges of different forms, such as line, network and grass rope by using
firewood, crop straw, branches and earth. The sand dunes are evened up by the force of waterflow in those areas where there are water sources. The concrete methodis as follows: this area
is in the major project of "the Three-North Shelterbelt Project" and "the Desertification
Com-
101
bating Project", which both are among the list of China's six biggest ecological projects.
The
overall arrangement of the Projects are :to construct the first large scale row of backbone she1ter belts along the border of Shaanxi and Inner Mongolia to lessen wind and cut sand flow in or ﾂ
der to prevent the drift sand from entering Shaanxi; to construct the secondsuch shelterbelt along
the southern edge of the desert to give a head-0n
interception to its southern invasion. These
two belts add to 850km with a remaining afforestation of 95 thousand ha. .The region of exploitation is at the east starting point of the two belts which form a converging attact from north and
south to the desert. As for the different dunes between the belts, different kinds of anti ﾑ wind
hedges are built. Sand ﾑ fixing seedlings are planted in between and net ﾑ shaped hedges are
used to completely close the sand land. The linehedges. vertical to the major wind direction,
should be built in the lower part facing the wind, one third from the bottom of dune. The forest
between hedges can be used to level the place two thirds from the top by the force of wind. The
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dune can be evened up, by and large, in 4 to 5 years. While the slope facing the wind become
gentler, the forest site goes gradually up. All the sand dunes will be covered with trees on the
whole by 3 or 4 repeating processes. Evening up of dunes by water force is the major method
employed in combating sand. Rivers, lakes and reservoirs are used as water sources
and the wa ﾂ
ter is drawn into the sand land by gravity or machinery. After the dunes are evened up , smooth
land will come into being through the levelling by man power or machine. Throughsoil improve ﾂ
ment, the desert will be changed into fertile farmland, orchard and vegetable base or factory,
school apd residential regions. As for the wetland widely scattered in the mining area, in which
high humidity affects the growth of plant, the harmonybetween desert combating, soil improvement, drainage and irrigation should be created to form a series of technical measures
develop-
ing and utilizing the sandy land
4. The Ecological Benefit
The comprehensive management on the desert in mining area has achieved remarkable benefit
and the desert landscape has greatly improved. Generally the height of sand dunes were 3 ﾑ 5
metres lower and slopes 5 ﾑ 7 degrees gentler. The sediment transported to rivers began to decrease. In the protective
scope
of the farmland shelterbelt network, the wind speed was de-
creasd by 28.8 percent and relative humidity increased from 5.2 to 16.0 percent compared with
those in the open area. In the sand-fixing
forest land, the soil texture has been changed. Com ﾂ
pared with the non ﾑ forest land, the proportion of fine particles increased 9 to 14 times and the
proportion of organic matter 4.5 to 11.5 times. The dead litter in the sandﾑ fixing forest land
weighed 1.5 ﾑ 2.7 tons per ha.. The increment of fine particles and organic matter in the soil inﾂ
creased
Water
R
於
pmen P
も ems
HP
ea
S 叫B
the Ar
卜
Hikaru TSUTSUI 1and Nobumasa HATCHQl
Abstract - Problems associated with water resources in the Aral Sea basin have been Analyzed. Demand
based calculation of water needs can be a first step to find viable and feasible solution to the water
resources and associated environmentalproblems in the Aral Sea Basin area. In addition, new initiative
to conserve environment by creating shallow water bodies in the dried sea bottomof the Aral Sea has been
ibed and it5impltCation as 山与
desC「
ノイ
K け WOr小 :@Ir「
ngation NCed5,
WaterB 川汀叶
Lren叶 Eva匹
叩卜血 q
C回
wo 沐
，
1. Introduction
runs into the lake through two major rivers. Amudarya and Syrdarya of whichthe water sources are the
Tien Shan and the Pamir. Until the 1950s the water level was comparativelystable due to the total
quantity of water inflow from the Amudarya and Sirdarya rivers (about 110 km^/year),precipitationand
ground water were nearly equivalent to evaporation loss from the lake surface. The level of water,
however, has drastically droppedover the last 30 years due to water and land resources development
that started after World War I1.
.Reclamationof 7.6 million hectares of irrigated farm land caused environmentaldegradationin and
around the Aral Basin . While the Aral Sea has recessed by about 60 percent from its size in the 1950s
S
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JA
ship building industry. The drop in the level of the Aral Sea has caused other diversified and
complicatedenvironmentalproblems. As the level of ground water reduced, many large and small
wetlands and lakes aroundthe Aral Sea have dried up or have been salinized. Salts accumulatedon the
surface of the lake bottom are now blown about with sand and dust and damage human health and farm
lands in the surroundingtowns such as Aralsk and Muynak.
Among many studies carried out so far, the most important is the one on water resources whichhas
the direct impacts on the Aral Sea itself, agricultural development,and environments. Previous studies
have mainly focused on water availability and supply of Amudarya and Sirdarya rivers without paying
much attention to how the water is used locally. It would be important now to shift the focus from the
supply side to the demandside when Colhozes and Sohozes which playedimportantroles in managing
water locally are being disintegrated. Without establishing local specific measures of managingwater
effectively, any proposals for saving water to avoid further deterioration of water supply conditions and
environments will not be feasible
As a first step, water demandsof lower Amudarya delta are simulated. The model is a robust one
with many unknownparameters andassumptions, however, it can be a start for initiating the analyses on
三L芯汀
三三
man
;
e ion,B
b
三三
。三三三 ぽ廿
は、
ご干
干 ，日ぷ 三二日三十
;Inan
5XL
三二
三ぼ
二三 耳三ヒ
、
出。・ご 三三賭岱ト ほ
gF : ;ersa
三aC
三三ほ
、
三
betweenwater demandsand supply as well as initiating better water management practices. In addition,
^ Departmentof International Resources Management,
School of Agriculture, Kinki Univ., 3327-204
631, Japan (Fax: 0742-43-2970)
Nakamachi.Nara,
104
―
2.1 Land Use/ Cropping Patterns
Any viable solution must address the water use for cotton
activity, for example, by generatingemploymentin a greatly expanded cotton textile industry as
substitutefor primary cotton production.
a
Low-productivity saline soils, on which low yields now are obtained despite enormous water use,
must be removedfrom irrigation. Even if only 5% of the lands which are least suited for irrigation, that
L; lon5,0
*; ;
L L":d
OmXLSaving
f woU
tatla C r "EE
;三十
耳だ
よ亡
三
芹
ぽ二三 三
三二
腎 日二日げ 日三
「
三
仁二
了
二三ぎ
二 三三三・
w
三 三。 こ
ほぼ三 g了三
;LClo]
二
三三
比 三三
of environmentaland economic concerns it will be desirable to remove an even larger area from
A study also must be made of the possibilityof reducingthe area under rice cultivation. Rice is the
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noted that most part of such large amountof water is used to leach salts that accumulatedin the soil
during non-rice crop cultivationperiod. Leaching function of rice cultivationshould be taken into
account in considering the reduction of rice irrigated area.
JA
1t is entirely evident that the intensiveexpansionof irrigatedland must be replacedby the more
intensiveuse of existing irrigatedlandsthroughimproved irrigationwater management and efficiency,
crop rotation system and crop mix as well as improved and appropriate technologies
2.2 Calculation ofETo and Net Imeation Needs Reference evapotranspiration(ETo)of the lower
Amudarya delta is calculated by Penman-Montieth
methodwith the climatic data of Chimbay. Wind
data at Chimbay was not available and values ofMazari-Sharifin Afghanistanwas used. The calculated
results from April to October (vegetation period) are shownin Table 1.
Major crops grown in lower Amudarya
delta area(KKAR:Kara-kalpakstan Autonomous Region) are
cotton, rice, fodder and maize. FAO standardcrop coefficientsin dry region and growing period for
different growth stages are utilized to calculate crop water requirements for different planting periods
Net irrigation needs (m^/ha) of each major crops are calculatedon a decade basis and is shownin
Figure 1. Calculated values and those by Dr. Zhu and other sources are shown in Table 2
Table 1 ETo in the lower Amudarya Delta (Chimbay station)
April
RainfalKmm/month)
ETo(mm/day)
，
"
。』
。 ""
ノ
June
11.4
4.5
2 8
l)FCld 叫 pn口non 所 d 口サ Ofgo%ass
3)4OperCCnlofthCDeedis'"pp"
')s 川
卜叫 。 " 川。。
May
14.1
"d
ぬ '"
。
ぬ
3.5
5.9
。
"
July
Aug.
1.2
6.2
Sept.
2.9
5.1
十
Oct
8
コ
3.2
・
フ
1.8
2) JSIDRE/J11D
Joint mission in September 1994
剛 "' 。。 'S
"
"
。
""
川 "'
。。。
'
JA
S
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106
een
;r bodies.
Several problems have
realize fall developments of these
22
ud
298
コ
ompensa
irst
xpected to be
821
is ttie
Total
staBle
ot wate
I
^
臥 pect
evapo
km
tio
ate
se
aency
ure
er
e oned ab
otal discharg
equired for co
ng evaporatio
nd water uses is about 4.5 km^. To
irevent
the drying-up of these water
lodies, careful attention should be paid
o the secured
supply
of water.
Second
is
the
probi
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JA
edimentation ot created
water 0001
high silt load of Amuda a riv
ch amounts to 40 millio
Impacts of creating
ies, especially
on
t e
wate
alance( inflow
aporation rate
nd sediment
need
furthe
nvestigation be
plementing fu
eveiopment plans
sible sol
"l
nl
i th
al
In addit
onserving environment by creating shallow water bodies in the dried sea bott ,0m cou
on if carefulattentionis paidto available
supplyandsedimentation problems
illation of water
upp
n
to
new
ate
oac
becomeviable
WSSBW 5S. 107-110(1995)
Journalof AridLandStudies
Effects of Forest and Net Windbreaks on Climatic Improvement and
Protection
of Sand Movement
Tai(IChiMAK ド,Borong
in Arid Lands of Northwest China
PAN ぬ，爪ヰngyuan
淵
DU 川 and RyoySAMESHlMA
Abstract - Prevention of desertification and greening a desert might be obtained by
techniques
and
net
windbreaks.
ofclimatic
Micr0-meteorological
improvement
oralleviation
observation
brought
related
about
tothe
byforest
climatic
windbreaks
conditions
in arid lands
carried out at the Turpan Desert Research Station in Northwest
were
China. It is suggested that forest and net windbreaks could be very effective for the
alleviation of adverse climatic conditions in arid lands, and could be effective for the
prevention of sand erosion or sand movement around farmlands in oases or agricultural
寸e
and 山巳dS ln S
d dune
巳ト
e
Key Words: Climatic Improvement,Desert, Marginal land, Meteorological alleviation,
Forest and net windbreaks
1. Introduction
Arid and semi-arid lands occupies one third of the total surface area of the world
The process
of desertification
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has been accelerated recently by over-development,
cultivation, deforestation, grazing and consumption of water resources
artificial reasons.
based on mainly
Although a desert has long been developing in China, particularly in
Northwest China, the desertification has been recently increasing. Meteorological
observation was carried out at Turpan, Xinjiang Institute of Biology, Pedology and
Desert Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences from 1990 to 1994
JleLAgL7
ltwa5demonstrated
小 at 小 e meteorologlCalelementS
ture, surface soil temperature
l e"wlnd
speed,alrtempera
―
and relative humidity could be improved and sand
，
・
浦班藁閣目早卜茸 F可藻浦浦こぎ 了十潤箕峯ぎ茸藍南司揖階 可田鞘三藷世
perature
season
2. Observation Methods
0
吊ゑ箆
「
ぢ再
、
g g裳重点案 甚崔凄F喜茸溌点蔑注L蓄註目
巨届集戸
起活毘
言目
卜
Relative wind speed (Ur) is the standard value 100% at -20 H. This numeral H is the
multiple distance ofwindbreak height (negative sign: windward, positive sign: leeward)
3. Observation Results
3.1 Observation with two rows of tamarisk windbreaks
丘 裾野引眉
iF
田点野弓
卦芳
月馬
hi
薙蒲眉 媒妾 騨川月閣R 甜旧
。
108
Windbreak
(A)
祠
Winbreak
ノイ
丁urpan
inb eak
口口「
ヰ
eak
2 t5卸坤 25
)
1992
「・
w
("h O
ち
RH
35 0
Distance
]山
イ山ノ
Fig. 1. Meteorological improvement caused by two rows of tamarisk windbreak
Wndb
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Wnd 口口 払
円a は
可
何
Uf 2
t
ぽ
30
36
JA
Turpan
(A)
Su山川 er
寸
イノイ
)
Distance (m)
Windbreak
Windbreak
)2:
21,
22
(B)
Turpan
―
ひ
刃山
48
@@
23
50
ヰ
00
[ l5tanCe(m
十
十
斗
Fig. 2. Meteorological improvement caused by two rows of tamarisk windbreak
Netwindbreak Net windbreak
Netwindbreak Net windbreak
DLbnCe
，
H
Fig. 3. Meteorological improvement caused by two rows of net windbreak
Di5(anCe
，
け
109
relative humidity increased with windbreaks. Ta was low inside the windbreak because
of the humidity increase
3.2 Observation with two rows of net windbreaks
F烹早閾謹 月闇哨F矩き三日浦 茸ぎ刊三比餌烈拙翌鞘早藻鞘担
日干聞廿鞘
EF
ま豆可態姦L
灘
:Lenn
ぎ百肯
毘汝単日堵ぎ目ぱ
S
L
A
呈至
呈茎卍目目目吉
by
ofTa
the
was
first,
reverse
but
recovered
ofthat
of
or
RH.
increased
alittle
after10
Hofboth
nets.
Changing
pattern
「
3.3 Protection of driftina sand with two row forest windbreaks
FL
JA
惹含
g菜痩再箆
浦
目耳
Rin
F;4.hi
L
茎藍幸戸
員再再漆ぽ あぎ
品三
ぉ「
。日日目よも目己
Eg
，
3.5 Effect on croos bv mixedforest windbreaks
低寺i
早環葺ま官芦計匡韮ヂ 眉目 ぷま
4 COnCludinQ Remark5
・
;
餌卦
iぎ痔目 A吊態
l 昌眉蒲皆早 "ま呉 Hま
「
。
。
110
w
(A)
^
百）
口
山ト
D
ト
口
口山
仁ニ
ニ
百
2
lf
0g
円
4
Scれ
は
干
（
ノ
ま
。
(寸ノ
50:
爪
。
互幻
よ
巾
t
・
舌
Cotton
ヰ
巳寸
口
幸
DlStanCe
丁u 甲 an
eso
-5
D@5t
10
Q
]5
，
H
，
Net windbreak
JA
B net
三
。40
丁u 「 DCn
ゆ
呈 20
-5
0
メ"
Flg 5 Variations lnsand
・
10
0@5tanCe
，
日ccumula
produced by net windbreaks
over a long time period
H
廿
，
け
S
L
A
･
・
D@StanCe H
亡
o
色
-10-10
・寸
8 10 12-2-100 00
回
]a100
一士
0
6
，
@4
Aet *B"
(Nov. 1990
-Apr. 1991)
2 4
l匁
(A)
Net windbreak
] の，
口
O
100 0
OWS
「
nft@a山 ns forestwlndbreak
ニ斗
口呵寸
5tanC
川 ag ra 川
20
on
)5
古
(C)
寸の
Le
口 t。。
(3 io
o0
DlSta 刀 Cせ・い
0
0
[email protected] V寸 iationS 巾 (八 B)heightsof
cottonand (C) cotton lint number
bv hill bv two rows of windbreak
・
，
(3) It is suitable for forest windbreaksin the frontier of marginal regions because
tamarisk has great resistance to strong wind, dryness, heat, cold, sand and salinity,
(4) It is important to make multiple rows of windbreaksmade of mixed trees, i a1
in arid lands
(5) Protection from strong wind, wind erosion and drifting sand by decreasing wind
with net windbreaks are evaluated as significant. It is effective to set the nets of 40 t0
50% densities in arid lands for improving climatic condition, and for protecting wind
erosion and sand accumulation.
(6) The growing of forest windbreakstakes many years, but net windbreaks can
immediatelyfunction and also protect for growing forest windbreaks.
References
Maki, T. et. a1.,1993: The effect of windbreakson meteorological improvement
and the
Proc
Japan-China Inter. Symp.on the Study of the Mechanismof Desertification,315-322
Maki, T. et. a1.,1994: Meteorologicalimprovement
and prevention of driftingsand by net
windbreak at dry land ofTurpan in China. J. Aqric. Met, 49,159-167
Maki, T. et. a1., 1994: Effects of double line windbreaks on the microclimate, sand
accumulation and crop at the arid land in Turfan, China. J. Aqric. Met., 49, 247-255
Maki, T. et. a1.,1994: Effects of forest windbreaksdeployed in arid lands, Turpan,
Northwest China 1 and 2. JIRCAS J., 1, 29-38 and 39-45
WSSSW,5S, 111-114(1995)
Journal of Arid Land Studies
Integrated Control of TailingsDesertificationin Jinchang.China
CongZili'*
Abstract - Jinchang city is a base producing Ni and Co in China. Tailings are emittedduring refining
ore.
and tailings desertification
results in severe environmentalpollution. In this paper, the causes of
tailings desertification, control
measures,
and socia1, environmental and economic benefits after
controlling are discussed. In addition, tlie possibilityof afforestationand farm recovery are proposed
Key WordsrTailings.Desertification,
Coverengineering
1.1ntroduction
Jinchang city is located in the east of HexiCorridorof Gansu province
andhasa typicaldry
continental climate, dry and windy. It is the biggest Ni and Co base in China. Some nonmetallic
products, such as sulfur, selenium and tellurium are also extracted.
The old tailings-reservoirofJinchuan Company,north ofJinchang city, was about 3.15km2,
stores 38.77 million tons of sludge from 1964 to 1991. The tailings were ofsmal1-size(as shown in
table 1.) Tailings sand moved with wind and endangered farmland and people's lives, so control
was urgently needed
(mm)
・
)ercentaee(%) 4.01
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Table 1. Grain size distribution of tailings
JA
)0 15
GrainS;2e
0 15・
0.10
4.64
0 10
・
・
0.074-
0.053- 0.043- 0.030- 0.020-
0.074 0.053 0.043
13.49 13.18 9.23
2.ProcessofTailines Desertification
0.030 0.020 0.010
16.87 17.92 12.65
く0 01
・
8.01
The conditions of tailings desertification are: deposited area chequered with coarse and fine grain
around the reservoir, dry atmosphere,and strong wind. There are 74 days with wind-speed more
than 8m/s and, 17 days with wind-speed more than 24m/severy year, the instantaneous maximum
wind-speed was 34.2 m/s(1993.5.5). Wind-speedon the top of the reservoir could be described as
follows
Kn 二(HO 06 川 V
・
，
(1)
where Kn is wind-speed on the top of the reservoir, H is the height of the reservoir and V is the
wind-speed on the ground.
By evaporationand percolation,the water loses very fast in deposited sludge. Thus, the surface
of reservoiris dry and 100se,the tailings moisture is only 0.96%. Tailings sands were blownout of
the reservoirand formed, tailings sands formed round, drift, crescent dunes and a dune chain on
northeastand northof the reservoirwith an expanding of dry area and deflation. In the condition of
nonpile movement, the rate of transferring sand followed equation
Q二(vl V )' "
，
。
・
* The Institute of Desert Research AcademiaSinica, Lanzhou730000, China
(2)
112
where Q is the rate of transporting sand;Vi is wind-speed at two meter height; Vo is threshold
wind-speed of tailingssandat two meter height,hereVo is 7m/s;R=0.91.
The tailings sand extended SE with winds from NNW, NW, WNW. The.trail of sedimental
tailingssandcan be found as far as 8kmaway, andthe pollutedarea was 5183ha. The contaminated
area and deposited quantity of tailings are shownin table 2.
area and deposited quantity of tailings
Table 2. Contaminated
打 %(h 句
deposited
quantity(m3)
98760
3 5
148000
74.00
forest land
124800
urban district
624.00
52776
discarded farmland
52.78
84171
287.22
farmland
82900
gobi.grassland
4141.25
total
591407
5183
type of land
edge of reserve bridge
・フ
Tailings sand outside the buried farmland,polluted air, and harmedproduction, life and the
environmentofJinchuan County.
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3. Controlling TailingsDesertification
From 1984, Jinchuanhas tried to control deflationand extensionof the tailings reservoir in
severalways. In 1992.on the basis of thesepracticalexperiences, the LanzhouInstituteof Desert
Research suggested an unifiedplanon controllingdesertificationof tailingsby bioengineecing.
This
plancould be described
as " overlaying,
impoundment,
recovering
vegetation
andplanting
". First,
the tailingssandlandwas overlaidby gravelsoil andirrigatedusingwaste water. Then, the polluted
landwas vegetatedandcropped by soil reclamation.
In orderto accomplish this plan,a great dealof preparation was done.We observed andstudied
experiences about controlling desertification,collected a great deal of information about
meteorological
phenomena,
water quality,depositing
process of tailings,
grainsizedistribution,
bearingcapacityetc.. According to the relationshipof blownsands,wind-speed and particlesize as
shownin Table 3., we consideredthat particlesize of more than80% of gravelcover must be above
JA
0 5mm,them 川 而 um mustbeabove IOmm6orthesurfacecover.
・
diameterofgravel(nim)'
Table3.ThreshoIdw;nd
wind-speed at 6m heightfm/s)
wind-speed at 10m height(m/s)
・
5 eedof
raVel
1-1.25 1.25-2.52.5-5.0 5-10 1015.2 20.1
16 0
・
21 1
・
26.5
27 8
・
20
2040
4080
35.0 46.2 61.0 80.5
36
・
フ
50 5
・
64 0
，
84 5
・
The control processes were: (l)repaired ways from quarriesto reservoir;(2)leveledthe desert
surface of reservoir;(3)transported gravel and covered the surfaceof reservoir;(4)leveledgravel
overlay.The coveringengineeringwas begun on April 6,1993,andended on September17,1994
4. Controlline Results
After controlling,sandpollutionand its harmfuleffectsdisappeared. A betterbiotic environment
3
and socia1-economic benefits were obtained. A black desert changed into even on which cars can
move easily. Suspending dust disappeared . Sand transport rate is now only about 1/5133 of that
before covering. Many kinds of plants, such as Suaedaelauca Bee, Haloeeton arachnoideusC.A
They occupied about 15-30% of the area. The surface of tailings reservoir was abundantin grasses,
air was refreshed and life environmentwas improved.
Compared with other suggestion whichwould cost 25 million yuan and last for nearly 10 years,
this engineering cost only 4.5 million yuan and last for 18 months. More than the investment in the
engineering, a large amount of money and time will be saved, which would be spent on cleaning
dust on equipment, streets and industrial rooms, etc. Better economicbenefit will be earned also
from stick breeding on the waste farmland
5. Improvins Biotic Environment Completely bv Afforestation
Some researchers considered that Ni and Co would cause chlorosis (Wllohouse),and
aeschynomenous phytogroup would disappear in nickeliferous soil (Editedly).
1n this paper, the content ofNi, Co and Cu in tailings is 42.9. 8.1, and 17 times respectively as
much as in soi1,as shown in Table 4. And the content of all saltjs 10.8 times as much as in soi1.The
pH of waste water used in irrigation is about 7.36. The content of salt in water is 2446mg/L,C1,Ca
and Mg is 930mg/L, 85.44mg/Land 114.05mg/L,respectively, and metal elements in waste water
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are much more than that of irrigating water, as shown in Table5
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Table 4. Content ofNi, C0, Cu in tailings and soil
Ni
Cu
Co
.sample
tailings
0 206
soi1
elements
waste water
irrigating
water
・
0 005
・
0 0 114
0 165
0 0 10
・
・
0 00 14
・
・
Table 5. Content of metal elements in industrial waste water(mg/L)
Ni
Fe
2n
C。
Pb
Cr
Cu
8.67
0.046
2.69
0.39
0.32'
0
・
007
0.21
0.081
0
・
02
0.024
0.017
0 003
・
In springof 1994. we planted 44 kinds of plants, such as arbor, shrub, grass, crops and fruit trees
on about 1.6ha. Most of them grew up very wel1, but high content of salts and metal elements in
tailings and waste water injuredsome trees. Rhus typhina JL. and Populous eansuensis C Wang et
H.L. Yang. appeared mosaic, but plants of the bean family did not show this symptom
6. Recovering Croppineon AbandonedField
Due to the oollution of nickelliferous tailinas. about 53 ha of farmland was abandoned.In order
to find ways of recovering farming, we did contrast tests with the same agritechnique, irrigating
Red pepper, sword bean,cauliflower, potat0, tomat0, eggplant, wheat, barley broomcorn millet
114
and soybean grew up much better and had higher yield on the test field than on the contrast field.
Becausetailings are black-grey and sandy, the test field had better heat-absorbing ability and higher
soil temperature. These provided a better conduction for thermopiles (e.g. red pepper) and resulted
in higher output. Although the content ofNi, Co and Cu were much more on test field, agricultural
products were in the same order on the two fields as shown in table 7
sample
test field
contrast field
Table 6. Content of nutrient and metal elements in test field
organic
quickresulting
metal elements(%)
nutrient(mg/100g)
matter(%) hydrolyticN Pzos
0 096
・
0.614
1.17
1.24
2 06
・
2 90
・
K20
31.6
14.6
Ni
Cu
0.172 0.119
0.005 0.010
Co
0.009
0.0014
Table 7. Output and content of metal elements in agricultural products
output(t/ha)
contentsofmetaIetementS(n
P)
sample
test contrast sample type of
test field
contrast field
山 on Sa Ie Ni
CO Cu Ni C0
Cu
field field
wheat
3.08 2.14
seeds
dried 10.7 0.18 14.6 3.3 0.14 10.6
barley
2.21 2.00
seeds
dried 5.6 0.15 9.0 2.6 0.15
8.1
寸
broom corn millet
soybean
broad bean
sword bean
potato
tomato
1.53
2.78 2.14
2.16 2.44
24.96 9.67
33.36 26.68
65.16 62.81
water melon
bailan melon
hami melon
seeds
seeds
fruits
tuber
fruits
JA
eggplant
29 14
red pepper
26.08
cauliflower
37.74
winterwhiteradish40.27
28.92
6.752
S
L
A
seeds
fruits
fruits
31.40
41.68
flower
30.87 44.57
20.51 24.86
fruits
fruits
44.22 67.14
root
fruits
dried
26.3
0.60 14.1
fresh
fresh
4.5
6.4
0.31 64.2
0.10 4.4
dried 55.8 0.9651.5 33.5 0.72
dried 28.2 0.3474.8 10.0 0.15
fresh
6.9 0.09 5.6 2.00 0.03
fresh
0.5 0.1241.7 0.3 0.05
fresh
0.9 0.06 5.2 0.5 0.08
fresh
fresh
fresh
fresh
fresh
2.6 0.05 2.3
1.0 0.05 18.7
1.4 0.07
0.8
1.1 0.06 0.2
0.8 0.05 0.1
3.0 0.12
1.4 0.28
1.2 0.01
64
・
55.3
60.6
4.9
2.0
5.8
15.2
27.8
0.70.09
8.1
2.0
1.1 0.07
0.4 0.05
1.4
1.0
0.9 0.06
1.2
All these show that: crops could absorb some metal elements selectively. By soil reclamation,
polluted land could be cropped again
7. Conclusion
Desertificationof tailings always pollutes the environmentseriously. By overlaying,irrigation,
recovering vegetation and cropping, it only cost a very short time to control tailings. This test is
very profitable to control pollution of tailings and industrialwaste in an arid area
LLm"
。め
T. C. Hutehison(1973).A study of Airborne ContaminationofVeg and Soils by HeavyMetals from Sadbury. Ontario
Trace Substance in EnvironmentalHealth PP 179-88
W. Woolhouse.Toxicity and Tolerance in the Responses of Plants to Metals. Encyclopediaof Plant Physiology New
Seals. Vo1. 12. PhysicalPlant Ecology PP 273-5
Edifedly Physiological Plant Ecology Responses oftlie Chemical and BiologicalEnvironment.PP 269-71
SA
%
1M1
ケ m
山
川
The
Effect
of
Desert
a
City
Halm TSOar*
炬ぬぬ
Aeolian
on
E
ata
1
川叫
。 ffeCt
・
'
Of
a
。
no
five
而比恥 m。釘即QpL
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re tban 200%
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。坤
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ft8 口"'
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h
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' 。
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阿ぬ地 '
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。
，
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，
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Deposition
E て e 土工**
て
妹山山
坤口
蜘
口田九 也
均
口 ぬ勺九
山 " ―ロ以ぬ班 L 血
"
Dust
ロ
。
―
阿
如―
血臼寸 故肚 ' 可九
口 In
，坤ぬ
屯可
私"
。'
。f
，
。
L
坤
'
。
坤
口ぬ エ也
のお 比
。エオ
'。
也"'
。
"
，
"。
エ n ヒてOduCt ュ Oa
Desert
margins
are
known as areas
where
large
quantities
of dust
were
deposited.
The city
of Beer-Sheva
is located
in a valley
in the
Northern
Negev
Desert.
Beer-Sheva,
which
has
an
annual
average
て色エn ｣ a エ l Of
206
エ S
エ n
a
LLanS ユヒユOnal
zone
beLween
Lhe Sem エー aL エ d
area
in the north
and the arid
area
to
the south.
There
is no rain
during
the hot summer
season
between
June
and September.
The modern
city
of
Biblical
Beer-Sheva
was
founded
at
the
end of
the
19th
century.
Its
greatest
period
of
development
was
after
1949,
and
A chain
of
errors
and
lack
of
today
it
has
140,000
inhabitants.
ユ・
，
understanding
the physical
garden-city
of
the
planning
of small
S
L
A
desert
environmental
of Beer-Sheva
after
urban
units
divided
JA
by
conditions
The
1948.
open
characterize
planning
of
spaces
designated
a
which
gardens
serveserve
as
created
duSCboW
エnSLead
S
openspacesbetween
the urbanunits
for
，
The
airflow
エ
・
，
changes
over
city
Several
wind
tunnel
cities
have shown that
flow is
top
of buildings,
thus
creating
characteristics:
first,
there
transport.
;
呈半
;言
E呈
言
ヒ
革三 よ
三ぢ耳弓芹
nights,
"
・
*
人
・
the
0
「
Department
University
460562)
are
亡
many
呈
騰モ
，
ぎ三き呈目 L
、
ぽお吉ア
仁且三
呈ぼ巨て
S n means
Of f of
O
。言ぎき亨言三享盲きよ
撫ぎ主
エ
竹
言言き
of dust-sized
particles
in the city
streets.
The
is usually
warmer
than that
above
the surrounding
heat
island).
This
effect
is very
salient
during
thermal
inversion
causing
air
circulation
patterns
that
inversion
and create
a dust
dome over
the city.
with
enfeeble
ぎ
ェ号三
of deflation
air
above
a city
countryside
(urban
3
two
are
most
important
for dust
and actual
measurements
in
and deflected
around
and on
important
changes
in the wind
eddies
in which
the vertical
nnn
n u ダ fCthe
eCoarSeS ナ Spere
Yiyic
毘OOn
@e@ech 0
:F F"
rate
buildings
models
diverted
SLu
也
of Geography and Environmental
Development,
Ben-Gurion
of the Negev, Beer-Sheva
84105, Israel
(Fax:+972-7-
* DeSe 「 t A「 ch エ teCturee
Research,
Ben-Gurion
1srael
Un ユヒ Jacob
University
，
BlauS ヒ @eln In8 ヒエ tuLe
for
of the Negev, Sede-Boker
De5e てヒ
84993,
LL gS
C
aCO
・エ
nu
エ
d
116
4
heeO
ed
，
f
nt
M甘 hodS
On
The
founVeS
S
uCtu
qgat
エOOn
eSWaSbased｛n
n the city
・
ユて
ヒて
ヒエ
て
dust
the
エ
chemical
Dust was
and
coエオmeCLed
neraa
Og
n Calcomposition.
traps,which consisted of round plastic
bowls
covered
エ
with
a depth
by a layer
エ エ
エ
of
5 cm and a flat
16 rom diameter
of
bottom
The
surface》hat
traps were
can
placed0n
trapdustbuilding
particles.
roofs,
a one
meter
a tower,
collected
Counter
range
The
of
high
Outside
used was
1.6-41.0
chemical
able
to
um.
moderate
north
Cal
a diameter
thus
of 22 cm
a rough
creating
ndowS エエエS etC andOn
the
traps
・，
were
placed
，
on
4.4 and 6 meters.
The dust
by a 44 urn sieve.
The Coulter
フ
S
L
A
measure
analysis
エ
wエ
Beer-Sheva,
at four
heights:
1, 2.
from each trap was sieved
spectrometer
mエ neralog
diffraction
stand.
of
marbles,
the
grain
size
distribution
in
the
was determined
by energy-dispersive
X-ray
in
a
scanning
electron
microscope
(SEM) .
The
COmDpoSエヒエOn Of Lhe duSL waS dete て mエ ned by
X ―「ay
JA
(XRD) analysis.
westerly
winds,
and
there
were
no
dust
storms.
The
during
1992,were
the fourth
also typica1,
sequence.
with
Summer,
moderate
from
northwesterly
July 22tobreezes
September
in 22,
the
afternoon,
Theamount
andno
of dust
recorded
collected
dustinstorms
the traps at onemeterabovethe
surface
deposited
areas
can
be
seen
in the city
outside
the
in
was
Table
1.
Results
230% to 250% of
The suburb
citv.
show
that
that deposited
Omer,
which
the
in
is
amount
the open
densely
vegetated,
deposited
there
hadwaS
エeSS
70
dePoS
Of土ヒエthat
COn
in
of the
dust,
open
although
areas.Inthe
theamount
city,
上
も
there
was considerable
variance
in the amount of dust deposited
on
the different
buildings.
The patio and the City Hal1, which also
encloses
a courtyard,
trapped the highest
amount of dust.
Spring
is
the season
with the highest
rate
of dust deposition.
During
dust
storms,
the rate of deposition
is 20 times greater
than during
calm
days.
Theamount
of dust is
1987) . A uniform
distinctive
trend
characteristic
known Codecrease
of
decrease
of
the
City
was
with heicht (Tsoar and Pye,
Hall
criven bv
the
Tower
(Figure
two
stations
1B)
JA
S
L
A
118
土
t
was S gn エ互土can 仁 ly
was, on average,
d エ f ｣ e て enL
土
whlch
between
エ
(at
% eve 工 )
umm(5.5-5.7
上
g-23
エ
than
中
)
the
C 土 Ly
duSt
，
・
^100
*）
ヱ可
口
0
4 6
5 5
Figure 2. Cumulative
open areas
The
Chem Ca
エ
エ
6 S
G[寸nSbe 仙)
weight of the grain size
(dashed line).
・
・
and m ne て aa Og cal
エ
工
エ
・
ア
・
5
in the city
COmpoSエヒエOn Of
(solid
line)
Lhe duSL
and the
COl エ eCLed
S
L
A
JA
References
Tsoar,
271-288.
H. andPye,K. (1987) "Dusttransportandthe questionof desertloess
formation".
Sedunento100v.
34, 139-153
Ac
t i vi t i es
i n t he
wo
r l d
Al: Quired by B. Tsoar & J. Shrestha
A2: chaire
B作
by
廿
・
卜 0n
4N 肋寸 i
・
Contents
Invited
Special
Articles
V33-U9: Strategies to Prevent and Corbat Desertifica ﾂ
tion in Mexico: K. A. Bardun0. Grad. Co1. Inst.
Natural
Resources,
Mexico
･
･
119-122
･
123-126
･
127-129
A2*E2: Technology of desert developmentin the
COBiomfealthof IndependentStates (CIS): 1. Zonn,
川旺
山山
RuSSia
A3*C10: Study on the techniques of oi1-transporting
highway construction in Taklmatan Desert: X.C. Xia,
Lanzhou Inst.
Desert Bes..
China
A4*+J33: Besert technology andits research facility
(desert done): 1. End0, HIKEN, Japan
･
･
･
This
did
paper
not
receive
a
S
L
A
Original
JA
full
revle
ﾇ
Articles
A5-C9: Problens and coimtenneasiires for resources
developnentand enviromental renovation in the
contiguous area ot Shanxi, Shaaffltiand Inner
Hongolia: S.Y. Fan, Lanzhou Inst. Des. Res., China
･
131-133
･
135-137
･
139-142
･
143-146
･
147-160
A6-J6: The Yellot River basin = A perspective tor
sustainable developnent in arid to seni-arld region:
M. Hatsuda (GIF), H. Kutota (Kubota), Japan
V17-07: PV based rural electrification
in Nepal Problens and prospects: J.N. Shrestha, Tribhuvan
nnlv.,
Nepal
A8-J21: Approach to desertification control measures
via agricultural
and rural developnent- In line
with the denonstration study of desertification
control measures in Niger: H. Got0, B. Sana,
K.
Bishida,
JALDA,
Japan
A9-03: Environmental impacts of land degradation in
Pakistan: Z. Hussain, Q. Hussain, Pak. Agr1. Res.
Coimcl1,
Pakistan
A10-J2: Optlnun arrangementsof parabolic airrors
as collective
concentrators in solar-cookers:
151-154
Y. Nakaj0, Ashikaga Inst. Tech., Japan
A11-H4: OFADECexperience on desert coatrol and
･easures taken locally to tackle it: H. Bdiaye, Off.
･
Africain
Pour
Deve1. Coop.,
Senega1-
･
･
･
･
･
-155-158
;叫
lM
り
L
・
p
八 P re ve L 川 H C omL L D
esert"乃
1
I
L
on
Me xi
Manuel Anaya Gardun01
Abstract- Desertification is affecting, more than 90% of the National Territory at
different levels. Strategies to prevent and combatdesertification should consider the
following: decision and political skil1, legislation, internal and external market,
education, participation of land holders, technology transfer, master plans at state
and municipality levels and funding mechanisms.
Key words:Desertification,Land Degradation, Strategies.
1. Introduction
Arid and semi-arid conditions are present in more than 75% of the Mexicanterritory. Mexico
has two majordeserts: named Chihuahuaand Sonora Deserts, their extension goes northward across
international boundaryinto the United States of America.
Drought affects several states of Mexico; during the last 100 years, more than 12 severe
events have been present in the followingstates: Baja California Norte, Baja California Sur, Sonora,
S
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A
Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas.Between7 and 12 droughts have affected the
states of: Sinaloa, Durang0,Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, Guanajuat0,Queretar0, Hidalg0, Mexic0,
Guerrer0, Oaxacaand Yucatan. Drought affects more than three million hectares under cultivation
every year, in pasture lands the lack of fodder crops and water, kills different animal species.
. Human population in Mexico shows some migration patterns due to adverse climatic
conditions, misery and poverty, there is a challenge to consider population resettlements, and
combating poverty, mainly in isolated areas. Land degradationin the arid and semi-arid zones of
Mexico is becominga serious problems, because it is already present in 22 states (Anaya,
1994 a)
JA
Mexicohas been, is and will be a country of contrasts; however,it has tech nology and social
potential to find the way for sustainable development.
Desertification processes in Mexico are caused by the following aspects: deforestation,
0vergrazing, over-exploitation of aquifers,erosion,salinization,diminishing the organic matter
content, reduction of soil depth, and contamination.These processes are related with population
density, in this matter the central part of Mexicocovering 20% of the national territory has 60% of
the total population, this central part is related with the neovolcanicbelt and with arid, semiarid and
subhumidzones, and it is the most affected area of Mexico(Anaya, 1994 b)
Mexico currently farms 22 million hectares of its land, 75% under rainfed condition. This
is a potentially dangerous situation since, given the projected population of 110 million by the year
2000 and an upper limit on farmable land of about 25 million hectares, the country will have an
average of only 0.24 hectares per capita at its desposa1.If adequate measures are not taken famine
will surely result. (CONAZA, 1994).
It is estimated that overgrazing has damagedmore than 60 million hectares of the National
Territory and that these lands exhibit the worst deterioration. In second place, with regards to area
covered and damage inflicted, are forests, which have suffered from badly-planned felling,
uncontrolled cutting of firewood and fires. In third place is dryland agriculture, which occupies
around 21 million hectares and whereaeolian and hydric erosion are prevalent. Finally, irrigated
agricultureoccupies5.8 million hectaresand poses dangers of salinity, lack of drainage, marine
Graduate,College.Instituteof NaturalResources.Montecill0, Mex. MEXICO 56230
JA
S
L
A
121
Besides desertification factors, it is very important to consider social and economicalindicator
such as: migration, poverty, educational leve1, health, protein consumption,carbohydrate
consumption and children's mortalityFigure 2, shows a map about nutritionallevels in Mexic0.
Overlayed figure 2 on figure 1, indicatesa highrelationshipbetweenglobaldesertificationmap with
the one showing nutritional levels.This indicates the need to define priorities to prevent and combat
desertification'by considering desertificationand the socioeconomic
indicators.(Roldan,et a1.,1988)
2. Technology and Desertification
Desertificationis a phenomenon
promotedby man and caused by exceeding the potential
limits of desertification which exist for the various land-uses. Any land-use by man signifies a
potential danger for the system and selection of appropriate technology tends to minimize this
danger and increaseproductivity.
Desertification is often caused by the need for man to subsist and many other times by the
desire to over exploit the natural resources. Technology represents a link between the natural and
social systems and may or may not result in the optimummanagement of the natural resources.
There are many examples of the correct and incorrect application of technology -there are cases
wherethe wrong application of technology has been responsible for many environmentalproblems
of which desertification is only one
Technology can be considered as simple, intermediate or advanced, depending on the
established reference framework, although simple is not necessarily related to traditional or primitive
S
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A
technology. Appropriate technologycan be, from the point of view of its complexity, simple,
intermediate or advanced, and therefore a particular technology may be appropriate under certain
specific conditions and inappropriate under others
To date there exists in Mexicoa great varietyof technologies generated by empiricaland
scientific know-how,it could be said that in general there is no limit to technological solutions to the
problems of desertification. In the majority of cases, the factors inhibiting efforts to combat
A
J
―
desertification are socia1, economic and politica1.
The selection and application of technologies to fight against desertification in Mexicowill
be based upon the education and motivation of the local population, the availability of wel1-trained
technical personnel and the levels of investment and time dedicated to the recuperation of specific
areas under the process of deterioration
3. Basic Considerations for a Plan of Action to Combat
Desertification
in Mexico CPACD
The National PACD should be incorporated to a National Plan for Development considering
strategies planning frameworkfor integrated projects and for sustainable development
TO consider and to evaluate relationships between Desertification, Climatic Changesand
Biodiversity in order to avoid duplicity.
Establishment and reinforcement of a data bank with mechanisms to exchange information
at different levels.
The Plan should consider a long-term aproach (5-10 years at least), taking in account
periodical evaluations; coordination, cooperation, efficiency are basic components for a
succesful result.
Reinforcement
of relevent research and development projects
based
on
the following:
National Programof Solidarity, National Plan for Reforestation, National Program on Soil
and Water Conservation, National Commissionof Water, National Commissionof Arid
Lands, National Programfor AnimalProduction, National Programof Education, National
Commissionof Population, Indigenous National Institute, National Institute of Information,
Geographyand Statistics,MexicanInstituteof Social Security, Agrarian National Institute,
Social DevelopmentDepartment, Agricultural and Hydraulic Resources Department,
Prevention will be easier and more economical than reclamation measures to control
desertification
122
4. Conclusion
By the year 2000, there will be 110 million human beings in this nation, each and every one
will be
will require food and acceptable living conditons.S0, real social and economic, development
the only way to prevent and combatdesertification
However, if our natural resources continue to be squandered,the Mexicanterritory will soon
be northing more than a lifeless desert incapable of providing for our basic needs.
The battle against nature and man himself is an uphillone; yet, all is not lost,hopeof victory
remains, through the joint efforts to save our childrenfrom a future of misery,poverty, famine and
death
References
JA
S
L
A
Anaya, G. M. 1994(a). La Relacion Desertificaci6n-Migraci6nen Mexico: Problematicay Soluciones.Siniposio
Int 。 ロ adonalSob e D 。 。 n 而口市 n y M;
do"%
。 血 Bpa 而
Anaya, G. M. 1994(b). Principlesand Strategies to Prevent,Combatand Control Desertification. X Congreso
Mundialde la Ciencia del Suel0. Vo1. 9 Pags. 361-366 Acapuic0, Guerrer0. Mexico
Anaya, G. M. 1994 (c). Policies for Prevention and Fight Against Desertification in Mexic0. Energy,
Environment,and Resources Center. The University of Tennesee, Stadium Hal1, Knoxvule, USA. Rev,
，
FORUM
，
・
，
Anaya, G. M. (1995). InternationalfoodPolicyResearch Institute. (1995) Workshopon "Land Degradation
in the Developing world: Implications for food, Agriculture, and Environmentto the year 2020". Abril 4-6,
1995.
Comision
Annapolis,
Nacional
Maiyland,
deZonas
E.U.A.
Aridas
(1994)
P]an
deA
田6n
paほ COmbat
IaD卜e 而CCaci6n
enMe
市の
卜
『
(SEDESOL) MexicoD.F. 160 pag,
Roldan A. et aL (1988). Geografia del hambreen Mexic0, Institute Nacional de la Nutrici6n Tialpan, D.F
Mexic0, 47 pag.
WSSSW,5S. 123-126(1995)
Journal of Arid Land Studies
Technologyof Desert Development in the Commonwealth of IndependentStates (CIS)
IgorZonn*
Abstract ﾑ Deserts and semidesertsin the CIS occupy nearly 250 M. ha and possess high natural and resource
potentia1. The technology of fixation of shifting sands, efficient use of pastures, irrigation agriculture
management
technologies,
the
are
application
considered.
aftereffects
Independent
ofwhich
republics
have
caused
ofCentral
grave
ecological
Asia
remained
consequences.
with
theirbaggage
of
ﾇ
ﾈ
Keywords: Desertdevelopment.Technology,Ecologicalproblems
1. Introduction
udaryaapdSL
Desert
卜gadon
areas
M山
，
possess
h
山eA 寸 S ぬ
且O
high natural and resource
gow@ag Of h 叶
，
potential Cotton belt developed
ほ vegetables,meloDSaDdgrapesis
，
而
on
the basis of wide-scale
d 拍 % SubS
d寸
山市 bo
・
S
L
A
JA
F蒲閣三な藷蕊浦浦醍茸藍眉蕊窯F芦ご甜
言鞘芯ま窯な監ぽ目員灘蒲藻醒誼烹
2. Desert Development Technolories
ずよ
f:::
単器汁瑠
There
2.1:
Fixation
remain
of
the
shifting
following
sands:
basic
technological
trends
ofdesert
development
き室謹呈月三 澤葺
F 言諒甑音員ぎ呈詣馬 ぽ
，
t以
gtechnoIogiesM
iiIrigation
a叩 cCuIt
e;
山
山
physical
2.1.
Fixation
and
chemical
ofShifting
technologies.
Sands.
Thefixation
isimplemented
with
the
use
ofmechanica1,
phytoreclamativ
wells'
ﾑ regeneration
ofthe
areas
where
vegetation
was
destroyed
due
toconstruction
ofroads,
pipelines
and
open
ま
%dCttIem
藻ぎ韮
言鰯韮三灘
まま
"
器ま 二
。
f:
芸三盟
lCo?ntroldS,o@@e
wtdwel"P
E Ef;R::
ぽ
日に三三
苛器
砦呈
ぷ目
Sand fixationworks were mechenizedonly due to the use of chemical substances, covering the sands with
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124
including afforestation, are being developed.
2
，
2 Land Reclamatdon
and Imp ovementofL)ese片
れ
t pa5tUreutDut.T@be tem Ofme
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:薫義三繋茎緊箆驚踵緊ま乏了呈驚巨黛箕夢巨
謹言蓮巨至再箆 革
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点点箆蓋ま互姦案
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ii 蒲 7まお藻呈 ;; ;指ぶぽeand
弘閲盟 :
the
amount
1tmost
of
bevaluable
noted
that
seeds
such
for
grazing
future
reproduction.
iseffective
only
underuniform
and
fullpasture
watering.
Thebalance
ま重 荘茂黛
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lf
日だ 器
。
pastuIes
ofanumber
ofcuttivatedandwtld
fodder
plants
It is
125
are quickly
seepage are
silted. During
very wet years there is a hazard of dam breaching. Water losses for evaporation and
often extremely large
The methodsof collection and storage of local runoff on the takyrs are economicand promising. These
methodswere applied form ancient dmes and based on the fact that the surface of takyrs is distinguished with
poor water permeability and water stand too long at them during wet seasons. The most primitive methodof
takyr runoff collection is its storage in small rain-fed holes, dug out in the lowest point of the takyr. In these holes
("khakhakhs") water is conserved within 3 5 months, but its quality is low. More advanced methodis water
storage in the dug deep filling wells ("chirie1') or in complicated covered structures ﾑ sardobas. The methods of
takyr runoff collection into special subsurface water reservoirs are developednowadays
―
ﾑ
―
I 市gated fanning OCCUpieS山eGGrStplaCe
血 a 山 C血t 川寸 deSertreC]amation
D 山山eSovietpoweI
叫 thi5ChaDginginvolvedradiCal
periodthe SyStem OfandlandtI hgation haS been IadiCallyChangedtFiIStof
technical reconstruction of old irrigation network, which greatly increased irrigated land productivity.
Simultaneously the projects of complex utilization of Central Asia great rivers stream flow were developed and
put into practice too a great extent. This alloved to attack the desert actively by means of irrigating and utilization
of ancient irrigated lands and start reclamation of new virgin lands.
Dozens of large irrigation projects have been built as a result of these measures. They are Amubukhara,
Karshi,Big Andizhanand Big Namangan,Garagum canals.Large hydraulicstructures, dozens of storage water
reservours
with capacity of 15,7 cubic km are under exploitation. Irrigated areas in Central Asia occupy 7,4 M
ha. The irrigationis carried out by traditional methods, slightlychanged in comparison with fonnelyused.They
do not provide for efficient use of water and cause degradation of irrigation and drainage conditions,
developmentof secondary salinizadon of soils. Out of total area of irrigation today about 4,5 M. ha are soilted
to this or that extent. Over 20 km3 of drainage water are discharged annualy from the irrigated field of
Central Asia.
A part of drainage waters is discharged into the rivers and canals,used as the sources of irrigation,which has
extremely objectionable consequences:
mineralization of river water is increased. At present, due to disposal
from. the fields, water mineralization of the major part of the rivers of the arid zone in the lower reaces 1ﾑ 3 g/L
Apart from salts, the river waters contain biocides and metals. By no means water discharge into the rivers results
in saving of water. On the contraty, the discharge of saline irrigation water is higher than the discharge of fresh
water at the same irrigated areas. The increase of mineralization of irrigation water by 0,1 g/1 requires the
increase of water amount required for irrigation of 1 ha by 1000 m3
「
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The otberway of 寸 agewater
血 chargei5 山eL 山AversioniDto dra@nItSs depreSstonsiD 山e d 卜 ert
回
chaoticdischargeof nearly 3,0 km3 of drainage water into the desert has caused inundation,water-1oggingand
・
salinization of pastures at an area of about 530 000 ha, and discharge of 3,6 km3 into the rivers and water bodies
results in sharp deterioration of surface water quality. Owingto this, vast lakes with water mineralization from 5
to 20 9/larefoImed.Thechain
ofsuch l 衣卜血 CenL 寸 @ASiaarestIetchingout
可Ong 山eenoItbernedgeof 山e
Bukhara oaSiS,lowerreaches of 山e Te
enand M山 pgabdelta5,on山le m打
of 山ee Or ノ
皿 and T 卜 ha山
oaSes.The
3) Due
largestdkpoS
[Oentr
皿 Ce
Ofl
打ge
ter
bodieSaIe
O LOfoIg
eSCmatteI
k whand
山卜eI戎卜ten
( ge
toれ口
OVerpo
OfeaCh
gLMth
more
山川
terCOLt
3000
寸
山
狂寸
山
・
寸
vegetation, howeverdue to intense fluctuations of water levels in the lakes this process can not be revealed often
The fluctuations dependnot on the natural causes, but on the intensity of irrigation within a certain season or
year. (Babaeveta1,1984)
In connection with drainage water seepage in the vicinities of water disposal lakes the solonchaks are formed,
0ften close in the area or exceeding the lakes in size.The removal of agricultural areas (pastures, lands promising
・
6171
forirrigation)
km2 israther
significant.
Only
atthe
plains
ofCentral
Asia
the
area
ofwater
disposal
lakes
makes
up
A number of methodsand approaches is developed for their secondary use for irrigation and freshening.
However, till now they are comparatively expensive and require further improvement.The methods on
improvement
of effuecientuse of water resources for land irrigation are known long ago: improvement and
noOdor
醍盟teR
f
!
:tan
thetotj
耳ぽ三茜芯 二 ご
三 kば甜届 ざ n品
F洋三ぽぼ
ぢ 2低僻ぽ Y点
廿点盟 L
replacementof the open irrigation network, introduction of more advanced methodsof irrigation (sprinkling,
drop irrigation), reduction and differentiation of irrigation rates with regard for natural features, weather
，
、
。
conditions and crop vegetation. During a short period of independence
there can be noted the shifts in the last
aIly
n@t
:; UpCo
ﾑ
:;
仁粘
l肛 i 千器 、は 三了 十三 芯三叫ぽ ;二 ほ三点 十三日・、 比器三 L晶干 。1耳吝 2 * り低 茸; 拭 ぱ比比 器袈三
networks remains rather low, especiallyinterfarm (Khabibulaevet a1.,1994)
Intermittent(pulsed) technology of irrigation is most promising on the way to increase the efficiency of
surfacefurrow irrigation.The main idea of this technology is water delivery in series of pulses, ultimate for the
，
。
，
，
126
conditionsof subsoil outwashing, alternatingwith pauses and subsequent "additionalmoistening" by reduced
water flow,most fullycorrespondingto thetarget of water saving.
The advantagesof pulsedwater supplyare revealedin the reductionof deepseepage beyondthe boundaries
of 山erootzone,re
血け ofmoistufe 位 田 budon寸Ong 山eefurrowIength,establishmentof
山e COndMo
瓜 for
uniform developmentof agriculturalcrops with minimumwater losses.This technologyis orientedtowards
gravityirrigationnetwork with insignificantcommandover irrigatedarea. As studiesshown, the zone of most
efficient application of this technologyﾑ nonsalineor slightlysaline irrigatedlands, levelledfor inclined
(O 002 ― 0 008) pI狙 e 而山
Onn slope h 山edireC660n oflrrIgatIon 市小 aw 口叫
低 pe eab正け Of
，
，
subsoils
The results of tests point to the fact that intermittent water supply can provide the reduction of productivity
of irrigation water use by 35ﾑ55% (in comparison with traditional), and reduce by 27 37% the expenses for
irrigation water per one centner (100 kg) of agricultural produce
Futher trendfor improvement
of thetechnologyof intermittentirrigationis high-frequencyirrigationof row
ﾑ
Cd
山 cropsasanalternatiwe
to power 寸O瓜
; 叫 drop
a血 n
2.4.Use of Solar andWind Energy.Naturalenergy resources are far above the requirements.Thus, annual
powergenerationof 1 M. kW by traditionalelectricpower stationis containedin solar rays of CentralAsia,
faIllng on 山e Squ打e 市小山 eSideof2,3
Apartf「Om 山;at, 山erearewa5tr 卜e
Of
d ener 町 biom蕊
and other nontraditional and renewable sources of energy,
Development
of pover engineering will take a course due to establishment of local power-engineering
systems,provtding
6or町
d, 而d 瓜
settIementaad山 IbaneleC田 C 川 d heatSupply
The application of solar energy in the nationaleconomy now follows on the line of use of low-potential heat
Solar power plants designed for these purposes could release 50ﾑ 60% of fuel used at present for the needs of
，
・
，
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smal1-scale
The
use
power
ofsolar
engineering
energy
isespecially
insouthern
important
regions
of
for
the
water
country.
desalination
and
water
supply
ofdispersed
users
in
aridandlow-water regionsof the deserts.Apart from simplesolardistillersof greenhousetype, usedrecently,the
type andmultiple-effectevaporation,furnishing
solarenergy is utilizedin more advanceddistillersof membrane
JA
a sharp increase of their productivity,
In this connection, a new promising trend of studies ﾑ combineduse of solar and wind power with the help
of a heat pump in the multipurpose plants (drying, heating, cooling, electric power generation, water
desaltation).Combinedsolar power andwindpower plantsare more efficient,their total power generationis
increased,the schedulesof its generationanduse are balanced,andthe numberworking hours andreliabilityof
powersupply are increased.To transformwindenergy into electricone, use is madeof wind-powerplantswith
nominal capacityfrom 0,14 to 30 kW.Apart from that,wind-power plantsare usedfor water liftingfrom the
wellsandbore holes,andfrom openedwater sources.The productivityof plantsis from0,3 to 6,0 n^/hour with
3O m hei如 t M rjSe DiapMa
diSplaCementand SCIew p p5 aIe 山口・ Till now, 可山Ou功山 eIe weL
developedpilot-industrial solar and wind-power plants, they were not widely introduced into use
・
3 C 。 nCl 瓜 lon
，
Catastrophic ecologicalsituationsin the desert zone were the result of the priority of engineering and
technologicaldecisions,with suprimacy of politica1.
First andforemostthisis theAral tragedyof the dryingsea
・
and foImlng of 山Cenew S皿 d-SolonCh
払 ldeseItwtth 山e 打ea of4 M.ha in U九 ee t 川 andKazakhStaQ.ItiS水 。
siltarion and inundation of the zone of 1400 km2 of the GaragumCanal in Turkmenistan. This is a vast
degradingdesertin Kazakhstan in theconventionaltriangleofAktubinskﾑ Semipalatinsk ﾑ Almaaty,
For rehabilitationof naturalenvironment
thedevelopmentandexport of new technologieswill be required
Re6erenceS
Baba口 @AoG
。ゐ nn I S
COnt 口 IoMoscow,p
・
，
103
・
‥
O 九卜け N S (1984):
Zonn, 1.,Skaini, M. (1990):
・
The USSR Esperience in Desert.Reclamation and Desertification
ﾇTechnologyon
the CombatDesertificationo
Ashgabad.P. 71
Mukhamedov
G.. OriovsldyN. (1994): Problemsof DesertDevelopment,
4-5:124-138
Khabibulaev,A., Rafikov,A. (1994): Problems of Desert Development,
4-5:14-24
5S,
e
0fAr
Th
m
卜
TL
S1
卜
m
奴
P
2ML
ト m%
山山
廿
S8Hi
川氏
LL
は
Su
dy
on
口十
山句
山
e
core
" onin
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卜
了
T
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2. GeomorphologicalConditions
ぬ坤州
The landform types along the highway line are as follows:
(l)old
and new
alluvial
plains of Tarim River
They are one hundred kilometers wide from
north to south, with Populus euphratic forests and sand dunes scattered in them. There are also high
and dense barchari chains, low dunes and blowouts alternately distributed on the ancient riverbed of
Tarim
River
(2) High complex barchans
aerial
area
photographs,
They
there are also dome dunes. Most of barchans have steep slipslopes
ranging from 1
ﾑ 3km2.
(3) High compound dune ridges
single dune ridges
about 30km wide and 30@@50m high. Viewed from
are
are
and cover
an
ﾑ 70m high?
They are 70km from north to south and 50
1@@1.5km wide, 10@@15km long and display
a
NNE
ﾑ SSW
orientation.
3. Route Selection
Rational route selection
can
not only avoid wind-sand hazards to the highway but also reduce
the construction and maintenance cost. According to natural conditions in Taklimakan Desert, the
following principles of route selection should be taken into consideration:
(l)The
a very
route to be selected must be a shortest one. Constructionof highway insandy desert is
arduous task. With huge maintenance engineering and high construction cost. Therefore, it
requests to shorten the route length and reduce horizontal curve
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・
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much as possible.
China (Pax,+86-931-8889950)
128
(2)The route should keep away from serious disaster-hit areas.
(3) The route should run parallel to the resultant wind direction or intersect the resultant wind
direction at asmall angle.
(4 ) In the light of local terrain conditions reduce the cut or fill engineeringn volume. The
existing terrains are balance outcome of long- term deflation and deposition, we should keep the
disturbanceof orignal surface to a minimum.
(5)The route must be close to building material sources.
( 6) The route selection should have a comprehensivebenifit. For this purpose, the route
selection must be combined with a layout of oil pipeline and water pipeline, communication and
greenig projects so as to form a "multifunctional corridor".
(7)The route selection should have an optimal ecological benifit. Great efforts have been made
to protect existing
vegetation, water resources,
land resources and wildlife to maintain ecological
balance along both sides of the highway.
4
・
PIeven
甘 On
Of
d
a8 於
to 山ehLhway
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A
In the light of severity of sand damages to the highway we can atopt different
measures,
including
"fixation",
"fixation"
, "block" and "transport", laying emphasis on fixation, has proved to be most effective
me 小山
to halt S
d
"block" and "transport" to eliminate sand damages. The combination of
a8於
Gener 可け
a 如 mprehenSive Sh可仁r ぬ 餌 k system consistS
JA
・
，
following five measures
of 山 e
(1) Establishing high- upright fence at outmost edge to check wind-sand flow and small
advancing dunes, which finally form into a high sand-dike.
(2) Erecting reed checkboard barriers
between the high- upright
sepcifications of 0. 75m X 0. 75m, 1mX 1m, 1. 5m X 1. 5m, 1mX 2m.
fence and the road in
(3)Sand dune stabilization with chemicals Three kinds of chemical stabilizers have been tested
along the highway but they have prohibitive prices.
(4) Biological dune stabilization This is a relatively permanentmeasure. Some drought-resistan
specieshave been selected and planted in the areas with favorable water conditions.
(5)Maintenance of the road sideslopes A better maintenance of road sideslopes will contribute to
check wind erosion of subgrade and let wind-sand flow cross over the embankment smoothly.
5. Road construction techniques
According to the natural conditionsof the desert, the Xinjiang HighwayTraffic Institue and
Changqing Road ConstructionCompanyproposed a high-velocity and low-cost road-building scheme,
its subgradeconsistsof sandsubbase,geotextile,gravelbasecoarseandwearing coarse.Sandsubbase
is easy to be compactedunder natural moisture-content condition.The most effective compaction
method for 100sesandis vibr0-compaction,
whilethestaticcompaction
methodcan only makethetop
layer compact.
The spreading of geotextile is a key procedure.It can be spread in longitudinal direction with
40cm wide strip covering over the joints. Once the geotextilehas beenspread over sand subbase,the
lorries can directly run over it and unload aggregateautonomously,
thus speeding up the road builging
pace.
129
The subject "Study on the engineering techniqes of oi1-transporting highway in Taklimakan
Desert" has been listed in the state* s 8th 5-year key project. China National Petroleum Corporation
and
Tarim Petroleum Exploration and Development Headquarter
are
jointly in charge of the
implementationof the project. The project involves seven subprojects four of which
by the Lanzhou Institute of Desert Research and the Xinjiang Institute of Biology,
Desert Research. After working
highway stretched
from
are
undertaken
Pedology and
1008 days from September 5, 1991 to June 9, 1994, the 219km
Xiaotang to Tazhong- 1 opened to traffic.
This engineering totally
transported about 3. 2 million m'of shifting sand, consumed0. 57 million m'of aRRreeate, 10387
ton of asphalt,
2. 62 million n^of geotextile and 9855 ton of reed, in the mean while erected 13. 14
million m2 of straw checkerboardbarriers and 328km of upright fences. It has been proved that the
highway has an obvious economic effect,
the transportation expense of common trucks only
corresponds to one thirteenth of that of special vehicles and the capital outlay can be recouped in two
to three years.
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