Beliefs

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of relationship. So what might these psychological factors be? Research has explored the
role of beliefs, the mother–daughter relationship and the central role of control.
Beliefs
Some research has examined the beliefs held by the individuals themselves and their
family members. For example, when attempting to understand ethnicity, studies have
highlighted a role for beliefs about competitiveness, the value of achievement, material
success and a parental belief that the child is their future (Ogden and Chanana 1998). In
addition, the literature has also emphasized beliefs about a woman’s role within society.
For example, Mumford et al. (1991) concluded that eating disorders in Asian girls may
be related to a family background that believes in a traditional role for women. Such
conclusions were also made by Hill and Bhatti (1995).
In a similar vein, when attempting to explain the role of social class research
has highlighted a role for beliefs about achievement and it has been suggested that
eating disorders may be a response to such pressures (Bruch 1974; Kalucy et al. 1977;
Selvini 1988). Lower class individuals, in contrast, may aspire more in terms of family
life and having children, which may be protective against weight concern. Cole and
Edelmann (1988) empirically tested this possibility and assessed the relationship
between the need to achieve and eating behaviour. However, although the need to
achieve was associated with class, it was not predictive of weight concern. It has also
been suggested that class may be associated with a greater value placed on physical
appearance and attitudes towards obesity (Wardle et al. 1995). Further, Dornbusch et al.
(1984) commented that ‘there are higher standards for thinness in higher social classes’,
which may contribute to higher levels of weight concern. In addition, Striegel-Moore
et al. (1986) argued that higher class women are more likely to emulate trend setters
of beauty and fashion, again predisposing them to feelings of dissatisfaction with their
appearance.
Therefore, beliefs about competitiveness, achievement, material success, the role
of women, stereotypes of beauty and the child–parent relationship have been highlighted as the kinds of beliefs that may predict body dissatisfaction. Ogden and Chanana
(1998) explored the role of these beliefs in Asian and white teenage girls and Ogden
and Thomas (1999) focused on lower and higher class individuals; both studies concluding that, although social factors such as class and ethnicity may be related to body
dissatisfaction, it is likely that their influence is mediated through the role of such
beliefs held by both the individual who is dissatisfied with their body and their family
members.
Mother–daughter relationship
Some research has also explored the nature of the mother–daughter relationship. For
example, Crisp et al. (1980) argued that undefined boundaries within the family and
the existence of an enmeshed relationship between mother and daughter may be
important factors. Likewise, Smith et al. (1995) suggested that a close relationship
between mother and daughter may result in an enmeshed relationship and problems
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with separation in adolescence. Further, Minuchin et al. (1978) argued that although
optimum autonomy does not mean breaking all bonds between mother and daughter,
mother–daughter relationships that permit poor autonomy for both parties may be
predictive of future psychopathology. Further, Bruch (1974) argued that anorexia may
be a result of a child’s struggle to develop her own self-identity within a mother–
daughter dynamic that limits the daughter’s autonomy. Some authors have also examined the relationship between autonomy, enmeshment and intimacy. For example,
Smith et al. (1995) argued that an increased recognition of autonomy within the
mother–daughter relationship corresponds with a decrease in enmeshment and a
resulting increase in intimacy. Further, it is suggested that such intimacy may be
reflected in a reduction in conflict and subsequent psychological problems (Smith et al.
1995). A recent study directly explored whether the mother–daughter relationship was
important in terms of a ‘modelling hypothesis’ (i.e. the mother is body dissatisfied and
therefore is the daughter) or an ‘interactive hypothesis’ (i.e. it is the relationship itself
between mother and daughter that is important). Therefore, it examined both the
mothers’ and the daughters’ own levels of body dissatisfaction and the nature of the
relationship between mother and daughter (Ogden and Steward 2000). The results
showed no support for the modelling hypothesis but suggested that a relationship in
which mothers did not believe in either their own or their daughter’s autonomy and
rated projection as important was more likely to result in daughters who were dissatisfied
with their bodies.
Therefore, it would seem that body dissatisfaction may come from the media. Further,
it may be related to social factors such as ethnicity, social class and the mother’s own
body dissatisfaction. In addition, it is possible that the impact of such social factors is
mediated through psychological factors such as beliefs and the nature of relationships.
Research has suggested that all these factors illustrate a central role for the need for
control.
The role of control
Beliefs relating to materialism, competitiveness, achievement, autonomy, the role of
women and a projected relationship between mother and daughter all have one thing
in common. They are based on the assumption that the object of these beliefs (i.e. the
daughter) has control over her destiny. It is being assumed that she can achieve, she can
compete and she can fulfil the desires of others if only she were to put her mind to it;
anything can be achieved if the effort is right. This is quite a lot of pressure to place on
anyone. It is particularly a lot of pressure to place upon a woman who may well feel that
the world is still designed for men. And it is even more pressure to place upon a young
woman who may feel that the world is designed for adults. Such expectations may result
in feelings of being out of control: ‘how can I achieve all these things?’, ‘what do I have
to do?’, ‘I can never fulfil everyone’s demands’, ‘my world is simply not that open to
change’, ‘things are not that controllable’. However, the one thing that we are led to
believe can be changed is our body. A family’s beliefs may make us want to control
and change a whole range of factors. But the only factor which may seem controllable
may simply be the way we look. In fact the media constantly tells us that this is so.
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