Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach

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The Psychodynamic Approach
John, 2005) According to object relations theorists, early relationships between infants
and their love objects (usually the mother and other primary caregivers) are vital influences on the development of personality (Greenberg & Mitchell, 1983; Klein, 1975;
Kohut, 1984; Sohlberg & Jansson, 2002). These relationships, they say, shape our
thoughts and feelings about social relationships in later life.
A close cousin of object relations theory is called attachment theory because it focuses
specifically on the early attachment process that we describe in the chapter on human
development. Ideally, infants form a secure bond, or attachment, to their mothers, gradually tolerate separation from this “attachment object,” and eventually develop the ability to relate to others as independent, secure individuals (Ainsworth & Bowlby, 1991).
Attachment theorists have studied how variations in the nature of this early bond are
related to differences in self-image, identity, security, and social relationships in adolescence, adulthood, and even old age (Consedine & Magai, 2003; Shaver & Mikulincer,
2005). In one study, women who had been securely attached in childhood were more
likely to have happy marriages than women whose childhood attachments had been
insecure (Klohnen & Bera, 1998). Another study found that people with insecure
attachments were less likely to be helpful when they encountered a person in distress
(Mikulincer & Shaver, 2005). Still other research suggests that children who, because of
abuse, neglect, or rejection, miss the opportunity to become securely attached may suffer severe disturbances in their later relationships (Aizawa, 2002).
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach
Freud’s personality theory is probably the most comprehensive and influential psychological theory ever proposed. His ideas have shaped a wide range of psychotherapy techniques (see the chapter on treatment of psychological disorders) and stimulated the
development of several personality assessments, including the projective tests described
later in this chapter. Some of Freud’s ideas have received support from research on cognitive processes (Andersen & Chen, 2002). It appears, for example, that people employ
several of the defense mechanisms Freud described (Cramer, 2003), although these may
not always operate at an unconscious level. There is also evidence that our thoughts and
actions can be influenced by events and experiences that we don’t recall (Andersen &
Chen, 2002; Andersen & Miranda, 2000; Ferguson & Bargh, 2004) and possibly by emotions we don’t consciously experience (Winkielman & Berridge, 2004).
However, Freud’s theories have several weaknesses. For one thing, his conclusions
about personality are based almost entirely on case studies of a few individuals. As discussed in the introductory chapter, conclusions drawn from case studies may not apply
to people in general. Freud’s sample of cases was certainly not representative of people
in general. Most of his patients were upper-class Viennese women who not only had
psychological problems but also were raised in a society that considered the discussion
of sex to be uncivilized. Second, Freud’s theory reflected Western European and North
American cultural values, which may or may not be helpful in understanding people
in other cultures (Feist & Feist, 2002). For example, the concepts of ego and self that
are so central to Freud’s personality theory are based on the self-oriented values of individualist cultures and thus may be less descriptive of personality development in collectivist cultures, such as those of Asia and South America (Matsumoto, 2000).
Freud’s conclusions may have been distorted by other biases as well. Some Freud
scholars believe he might have (perhaps unconsciously) modified reports of what happened during therapy to better fit his theory (Esterson, 2001; Powell & Boer, 1995;
Schultz & Schultz, 2005). He may also have asked leading questions that influenced
patients to “recall” events from their childhoods that never happened (Esterson, 2001).
Today, as described in the memory chapter, there are similar concerns that some
patients who recover allegedly repressed memories about childhood sexual abuse may
actually be reporting false memories implanted by their therapists (Loftus, 2004).
Freud’s focus on male psychosexual development and his notion that females envy
male anatomy have also been attacked. In the tradition of Horney, some contemporary
neo-Freudians have proposed theories that focus specifically on the psychosexual development of women (Sayers, 1991).