Identity and Development of the Self

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Adolescence
older parents and more likely to abuse them (Brooks-Gunn & Chase-Lansdale, 2002).
The children of teenage parents, in turn, are more likely to develop behavior problems
and to do poorly in school than those whose parents are older (Moffitt, 2002; National
Center for Health Statistics, 2000).
Identity and Development of the Self
In many less economically developed nations today, and in the United States during
earlier times, the end of early adolescence (around the age of fourteen) marks the onset
of adulthood—a time when work, parenting, and grown-up responsibilities begin. In
modern North America, the transition from childhood to adulthood often lasts well
into the twenties. Adolescents spend a lot of time being students or trainees. This
lengthened adolescence has created special problems—among them, the matter of finding or forming an identity.
Forming a Personal and Ethnic Identity Preschool children asked to describe
themselves often mention a favorite or habitual activity: “I watch TV” or “I play in the
yard.” At eight or nine, children identify themselves by giving facts such as their sex,
age, name, physical appearance, and likes and dislikes. They may still describe themselves in terms of what they do, but they now include how well they do it compared
with other children. Then, at about age eleven, children begin to describe themselves
in terms of social relationships, personality traits, and other general, stable psychological characteristics such as “smart” or “friendly” (Shaffer, 1999). These changes in the
way children and adolescents describe themselves suggest changes in the way they think
about themselves. As they become more self-conscious, they gradually develop a personal identity as unique individuals.
Their personal identity may be affected by their ethnic identity—the part of a person’s identity that reflects the racial, religious, or cultural group to which the person
belongs (French et al., 2006). In melting-pot nations such as the United States, some
members of ethnic minorities may identify with their ethnic group—Chinese, Mexican, or Italian, for example—even more than with their national citizenship. Children
are aware of ethnic cues such as skin color before they reach the age of three. Minoritygroup children notice these cues earlier than other children and prefer to play with children from their own group (Milner, 1983). In high school, most students hang out with
members of their own ethnic group. They tend not to know classmates in other ethnic groups well, seeing them more as members of those groups than as individuals
(Steinberg, Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992). A positive ethnic identity contributes to selfesteem, partly because seeing their own group as superior makes people feel good about
themselves (Fiske, 1998). However, as described in the chapter on social psychology, the
same processes that create ethnic identity can also sow the seeds of ethnic prejudice.
Adolescents who regularly interact with members of other ethnic groups usually
become less prejudiced adults (Phinney, Ferguson, & Tate, 1997).
Facing the Identity Crisis Identity formation is the central task of adolescence in
ethnic identity The part of a person’s
identity that reflects the racial, religious, or cultural group to which he or
she belongs.
identity crisis The phase during which
an adolescent attempts to develop an
integrated self-image as a unique person by pulling together self-knowledge
acquired during childhood.
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. According to Erikson (1968), events of
late adolescence—graduating from high school, going to college, and forming new relationships—challenge the adolescent’s self-concept and trigger an identity crisis (see
Table 9.2). In this crisis, the adolescent must develop the self-image of a unique person by pulling together self-knowledge acquired during childhood. If infancy and
childhood brought trust, autonomy, and initiative, according to Erikson, adolescents
will resolve the identity crisis positively, feeling self-confident and competent. If infancy
and childhood resulted in feelings of mistrust, shame, guilt, and inferiority, adolescents
will be confused about their identity and goals.
In Western cultures there is some limited empirical support for Erikson’s ideas about
the identity crisis. In late adolescence, young people do consider alternative identities
(Waterman, 1982). They may “try out” being rebellious, studious, or detached as
they attempt to resolve questions about sexuality, self-worth, industriousness, and