Unusual Intelligence

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Chapter 7 Thought, Language, and Intelligence
common life experiences (Sternberg et al., 1995). It is no wonder, then, that children
who do poorly in school and on intelligence tests may also show high degrees of practical intelligence. Some Brazilian street children, for example, can do the math required
for their street businesses despite having failed mathematics in school (Carraher,
Carraher, & Schliemann, 1985).
Sternberg and his colleagues have developed new intelligence tests designed to assess
analytic, practical, and creative intelligence (see Figure 7.14). They offer evidence that
scores on these tests can predict success at some jobs at least as well as standard intelligence tests (Leonhardt, 2000; Sternberg & Kaufman, 1998; Sternberg et al., 1995), but
other researchers have questioned this interpretation (Brody, 2003).
Multiple Intelligences
Many people with only average scores on intelligence tests have exceptional ability in
specific areas. Even those with very low IQ scores have been known to show incredible
ability in narrowly defined skills (Miller, 1999). One such child, whose IQ was only 50,
could instantly and correctly state the day of the week for any date between 1880 and
1950 (Scheerer, Rothmann, & Goldstein, 1945). He could also play melodies on the
piano by ear and sing Italian operatic pieces he had heard. He could spell—forward or
backward—any word spoken to him and could memorize long speeches. However, he
had no understanding of what he was doing.
Cases such as this are part of the evidence that led Howard Gardner to suggest that
everyone possesses a number of intellectual potentials, or “intelligences,” each of which
involves a somewhat different set of skills (Gardner, 1993, 2002). Biology, he says, provides raw capacities for each of these multiple intelligences; cultures provide symbolic
systems—such as language—that enable people to use their raw capacities. According
to Gardner, the various intelligences normally interact, but they can function with some
independence, and individuals may develop certain intelligences further than others.
The specific intelligences that Gardner (1999) proposes are (1) linguistic intelligence
(reflected in good vocabulary and reading comprehension), (2) logical-mathematical
intelligence (as indicated by skill at arithmetic and certain kinds of reasoning), (3) spatial intelligence (seen in understanding relationships between objects), (4) musical intelligence (as in abilities involving rhythm, tempo, and sound identification), (5) bodykinesthetic intelligence (reflected in skill at dancing, athletics, and eye-hand
coordination), (6) intrapersonal intelligence (displayed by self-understanding), (7)
interpersonal intelligence (seen in the ability to understand and interact with others),
and (8) naturalistic intelligence (the ability to see patterns in nature). Other researchers
have suggested that people also possess emotional intelligence, which involves the capacity to perceive, use, understand, and manage their emotions (Meyer & Salovey, 1997;
Salovey & Grewal, 2005).
Gardner says that standard IQ tests sample only the first three of these diverse intelligences, mainly because they are the forms of intelligence most valued in school. To
measure specific intelligences that are not tapped by standard IQ tests, Gardner suggests collecting samples of children’s writing, assessing their ability to appreciate or produce music, and obtaining teacher reports of their strengths and weaknesses in athletic
and social skills.
Gardner’s view of intelligence is appealing, partly because it allows virtually everyone to be highly intelligent in at least one way. However, his critics argue that including athletic or musical skill as part of intelligence dilutes the usefulness of the concept,
especially as it is applied to school and in many kinds of jobs. Nevertheless, Gardner
and his colleagues continue working on new ways of assessing “multiple intelligences.”
The value of these methods will be determined by further research.
Unusual Intelligence
Psychologists’ understanding of intelligence has been advanced by studying people
whose cognitive abilities are unusual—especially the gifted and the mentally retarded
(Robinson, Zigler, & Gallagher, 2000).
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Diversity in Intelligence
7.14
Testing for Practical and
Creative Intelligence
Robert Sternberg argues that
traditional IQ tests measure
by
mainly analytic intelligence.
Here are sample items from tests he developed that test practical and creative intelligence as well. The answers are given at
the bottom of the figure. How did you do?
doing
2
learn
PRACTICAL
1. Think of a problem that you are currently experiencing in real life. Briefly describe the
problem, including how long it has been present and who else is involved (if anyone).
Then describe three different practical things you could do to try to solve the problem.
(Students are given up to 15 minutes and up to 2 pages.)
2. Choose the answer that provides the best solution, given the specific situation and
desired outcome.
John’s family moved to Iowa from Arizona during his junior year in high school.
He enrolled as a new student in the local high school two months ago but still has
not made friends and feels bored and lonely. One of his favorite activities is writing
stories. What is likely to be the most effective solution to this problem?
A. Volunteer to work on the school newspaper staff.
B. Spend more time at home writing columns for the school newsletter.
C. Try to convince his parents to move back to Arizona.
D. Invite a friend from Arizona to visit during Christmas break.
3. Each question asks you to use information about everyday things. Read each question
carefully and choose the best answer.
D:
A. $10.
B. $20.
$5 (Rows 31–100)
C: $10 (Rows 21–30)
Mike wants to buy two
seats together and is
told there are pairs of
seats available only in
Rows 8, 12, 49, and
95–100. Which of the
following is not one of
his choices for the total
price of the two tickets?
B: $15 (Rows 11–20)
A: $20 (Rows 1–10)
FIELD
C. $30.
D. $40.
CREATIVE
1. Suppose you are the student representative to a committee that has the power and the
money to reform your school system. Describe your ideal school system, including
buildings, teachers, curriculum, and any other aspects you feel are important.
(Students are given up to 15 minutes and up to 2 pages.)
2. Each question has a “Pretend” statement. You must suppose that this statement is true.
Decide which word goes with the third underlined word in the same way that the first
two underlined words go together.
Colors are audible.
flavor is to tongue as shade is to
A. ear.
B. light.
C. sound.
D. hue.
3. First, read how the operation is defined. Then, decide what is the correct answer to
the question.
There is a new mathematical operation called flix.
It is defined as follows:
A flix B = A + B, if A > B
but
A flix B = A x B, if A < B
and A flix B = A / B, if A = B
How much is 4 flix 7?
A. 28.
B. 11.
C. 3.
D. –11.
ANSWERS. Practical: (2) A, (3) B. Creative: (2) A, (3) A.
FIGURE
Source: Sternberg (1996).
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Chapter 7 Thought, Language, and Intelligence
Giftedness People who show remarkably high levels of accomplishment in partic-
ular areas are often referred to as gifted. Giftedness is typically measured by school
achievement. A child’s potential for high achievement is usually measured by intelligence tests, but researchers warn that it is risky to predict academic potential from a
single measure, such as an IQ score (Hagen, 1980; Lohman & Hagen, 2001; Thorndike
& Hagen, 1996).
For one thing, not all people with unusually high IQs become famous and successful in their chosen fields. One of the best-known studies of the intellectually
gifted was conducted by Lewis Terman and his colleagues (Oden, 1968; Sears, 1977;
Terman & Oden, 1947, 1959). This study began in 1921 with the identification of
more than 1,500 boys and girls whose IQ scores were very high—most higher than
135 by age ten. Periodic interviews and tests over the next seventy years revealed
that few, if any, became world-famous scientists, inventors, authors, artists, or composers. But only 11 failed to graduate from high school, and more than two-thirds
graduated from college—this at a time when completing a college education was relatively rare, particularly for women. Ninety-seven went on to earn Ph.D.’s; 92, law
degrees; and 57, medical degrees. In 1955 their median family income was well above
the national average (Terman & Oden, 1959). In general, they were physically and
mentally healthier than the general population and appeared to have led happier, or
at least more fortunate, lives (Cronbach, 1996). More recent studies also show that
people with higher IQ scores tend to live longer (Deary et al., 2004; Gottfredson,
2004; Hart et al., 2003), perhaps because they have the reasoning and problemsolving skills that lead them to take better care of themselves (Deary & Der, 2005;
Gottfredson & Deary, 2004; see the Focus on Research section of the chapter on
health, stress, and coping).
In other words, higher IQ scores tend to predict greater success in life (Wai, Lubinski,
& Benbow, 2005; Lubinski et al., 2006; Whalley & Deary, 2001), but an extremely high
IQ does not guarantee special distinction. Some research suggests that gifted children
are not fundamentally different kinds of people. They just have “more” of the same
basic cognitive abilities seen in all children (Dark & Benbow, 1993; Singh & O’Boyle,
2004). Other work suggests that gifted people may be different in other ways, too, such
as having unusually intense motivation to master certain tasks or areas of intellectual
endeavor (Lubinski, 2001; Winner, 2000).
Mental Retardation People whose IQs are lower than about 70 and who fail to
familial retardation Cases of mild retardation for which no environmental
or genetic cause can be found.
display the skills at daily living, communication, and other tasks that are expected of
those their age have traditionally been described as mentally retarded (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). They are now often referred to as developmentally disabled,
developmentally delayed, or mentally challenged. People within this very broad category
differ greatly in their cognitive abilities and in their ability to function independently
in daily life (see Table 7.2).
Some cases of mental retardation have a clearly identifiable cause. The best-known
example is Down syndrome, which occurs when an abnormality during conception
results in an extra copy of chromosome 21 (Hattori et al., 2000). Children with Down
syndrome typically have IQ scores in the range of 40 to 55, though some may score
higher than that. There are also several inherited causes of mental retardation. The most
common of these is fragile X syndrome, a defect on chromosome 23 (known as the
X chromosome). Retardation can also result from environmental causes, such as exposure to German measles (rubella), alcohol, or other toxins before birth; oxygen deprivation during birth; and head injuries, brain tumors, and infectious diseases (such as
meningitis or encephalitis) in childhood (U.S. Surgeon General, 1999).
Familial retardation refers to the 30 to 40 percent of (usually mild) cases of mental retardation that have no obvious genetic or environmental cause (American
Psychiatric Association, 1994). These cases appear to result from a complex and as yet
unknown interaction between heredity and environment that researchers are continuing to explore (Croen, Grether, & Selvin, 2001; Spinath, Harlaar et al., 2004).
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Diversity in Intelligence
TA B L E
7.2
Categories of Mental
Retardation
These categories are approximate. Especially at the upper end of the scale, many retarded persons can be taught to handle
tasks well beyond what their IQ scores
might suggest. Furthermore, IQ is not the
only diagnostic criterion for retardation.
Many people with IQs lower than 70 can
function adequately in their everyday environment and so would not be classified as
mentally retarded.
Level of
Retardation
IQ Scores
Characteristics
Mild
50–70
A majority of all the mentally retarded. Usually
show no physical symptoms of abnormality.
Individuals with higher IQs can marry, maintain a
family, and work in unskilled jobs. Abstract
reasoning is difficult for those with the lower IQs
of this category. Capable of some academic
learning to a sixth-grade level.
Moderate
35–49
Often lack physical coordination. Can be trained to
take care of themselves and to acquire some
reading and writing skills. Abilities of a 4- to
7-year-old. Capable of living outside an institution
with their families.
Severe
20–34
Only a few can benefit from any schooling. Can
communicate vocally after extensive training. Most
require constant supervision.
Profound
Below 20
Mental age less than 3. Very limited communication.
Require constant supervision. Can learn to walk,
utter a few simple phrases, and feed themselves.
People who are mildly retarded differ from other people in three important ways
(Campione, Brown, & Ferrara, 1982):
1. They perform certain mental operations more slowly, such as retrieving information from long-term memory. When asked to repeat something they have
learned, they are not as quick as a person of normal intelligence.
Removed due to copyright
permissions restrictions.
THE EAGLE HAS LANDED In
February 2000, Richard Keebler, twentyseven, became an Eagle Scout in the Boy
Scouts of America. His achievement was
notable not only because a mere 4 percent of all Scouts ever reach this rank but
also because Keebler has Down syndrome. As we come to better understand
the potential, and not just the limitations,
of mentally retarded people, their opportunities and their role in society will
continue to expand.
2. They simply know fewer facts about the world. It is likely that this deficiency is
a consequence of the problem listed next.
3. They are not very good at using certain mental strategies that may be important
in learning and problem solving. For example, they do not remember to rehearse
material that must be held in short-term memory, even though they know how
to do so.
Despite such difficulties, the intellectual abilities of mentally retarded people can
be improved to some extent. One program that emphasized positive parent-child
communications began when the children were as young as two and a half years old.
It helped children with Down syndrome to eventually master reading skills at a
second-grade level, providing the foundation for further achievement (Rynders &
Horrobin, 1980; Turkington, 1987). However, designing effective programs for children who are retarded is complicated by the fact that learning does not depend on
cognitive skills alone. It also depends on social and emotional factors, including
where children learn. Much debate has focused on mainstreaming, the policy of teaching children with disabilities, including those who are retarded, in regular classrooms
alongside children without disabilities. Is mainstreaming good for retarded children?
A number of studies comparing the cognitive and social skills of children who have
been mainstreamed and those who were separated show few significant differences
overall. However, it does appear that students at higher ability levels may gain more
from being mainstreamed than their less mentally able peers (Cole et al., 1991; Mills
et al., 1998).