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Shanyi Taipusi Light
181
4. Sandv desertification
4.1 Spread and state
According to the former research reports and data, sandy desertification had developed rapidly in a
large range only since the late of 1950s. Based on the different status from quantitative change to
qualitative change, the desertified land can be classed in 4 degrees, such as slight(L), moderate(M),
severe(S) and very severe(VS), and also can be divided in desertified farm land, rangeland and woodland
or mixed land-above according to the major pattern of land use.
The research results of a project on
monitoring and assessing sandy desertification in the region, which was carried out and employedthe
methods of combinationon the multitemporal remotely-sensed data applied and the natura1-social
comprehensive studied, has shown that the sandy desertification spread rapidly (Wang Ta0, 1989, 1991,
Zhu Che, Wu Wei, 1994). From Table 1.it can be found out that the development of desertified land was
not only in the areas but also in the degrees. The total desertified area of higher degree, such as of
moderate, severe and very severe have increased from 4,590 sq.km. in 1975 to 10,759 sq.km. in 1987,
that was 6,169 sq.km more or 134.4% more. Meanwhile, the slight desertified land, on the contrary, has
decreased from 17,512 to 12,995 sq.km. because most of those lands had expanded to the lands of
moderate, severe
and very
severe.
could be reclaimed.
It has also been illustrated
that there were
very
limited wasteland
S
L
A
Table 1. The development of sandy desertification in Bashang region of the North China
ed
Light
JA
90
13
乃川抄 Ci
Shanyi
ぬ ngbao
Guyuan
Fengn卜g
w 市hang
Huade
ぬ 川如 u 川 g
乃 enbai
Taipusi
乃
。
nl 、 n
Duo]Un
T0 回
59
96
斗 7689
土
2
n
九十
1374 1119 -18.5
2555 1968 -22.9
1951 1757 -9.9
696
480
-31 0
439 -
259
-41.0
1294
61
142
783
1
叫
乃
L
552
エフ
34 m
乃
494
613
781
502
-9 1
67
刃の 5246I9
・
12
33264
661863
41333
・
631797 -51.2
L
1975
261
フ
呪
フ
41
土
88
96
5
335 0
829
79 1
326
nlt: SO k
・
・
1975 1987
)
十九
・
191
・
斗
62 6
402
10 4
J
山上
・
・
602
44.0
6
寸 3I
る
斗 3
76
フ
り
Very Severe
ユ卜
・
627
321
1
九二
%1
26
1
274
115
271 1077
37 01
(
Moderate
10
38
―
65
乃卜
542
フ
725
93
297 4
あゐ
・
63
4
・
3512 7088 101.8
1896
2997
234.5
8
5
30129
1 182
28
105
11
24 200
21 320
110 266.7
2フ 7
114
・
丁
674 270.3
4.2 Processes of sandy desertification
Sandy desertification had resulted from the vegetation degradationby overcultivating, overgrazing, wood
collection. It had led to a general decrease in productivity of the land and in the accelerated degradation
of the soil resource due to wind erosion in the region. The fine top soil was lost to wind erosion. The
excessive loss of soi1, nutrients, and sometimes even seeds from the ecosystem affects the capability of
the vegetation to recover and crop agriculture to grow, and constitutes the principal mechanismof damage
The landscape of farmland and rangeland has been changed by the wind
to the economy.
erosion/deposition from clear surface roughness and fresh sand sheets cover, bush-wood sand mounds
to shifting sands and eroded lands inler-distributed with fixed and semi-fixed dunes, biowouted
bush-wood dunes, and to eroded lands and drifting sands with ripples in the barchan dunes and barchan
182
chains, abandoned farmland and degraded grassland, roughness surface with no vegetation cover.
Results from the dynamicanalysis of desertified maps, which was based on the map of 1975 and 1987
and the Arc/InfoGIS, point out that, duringthat period,there were 816 sq.km. of rangeland have been
developed directly to desertified farmland in different degree and 640 sq.km. to desertified rangeland
There were many changes and evolution from land use pattern to the areas and degrees among the
different type of desertified land. Actually, some sites in the region, where some efforts have been made
over decade for combating the processes, the desertified land has decreased not only from areas but also
from intensities,althoughthe reversed value was ratherlow comparedwith expanded areas (Wang Ta0,
1989).
4.3 Causes of sandy desertification
It is no doubt that the human inappropriate land use should take mainly responsibility for the sandy
desertification in the region. Meanwhile, it is also considered the climatic impact on the issue. For last 3
decades, the temperaturehas shown an increased trend, the rainfall has increased in 1970s as against
1960s and decreased in 1980's against 1970's (Table2.). Specially,duringseventies and eightiesthose
changes were favourable for the process of sandy desertification. But it is still not so easy to determine
its contributed rate.
S
L
A
Table 2. Changes of temperatureand precipitation in Bashang region (1960 - 1989 )
Station
ひ叫 b
Sh 八 Ilg
十
血如 "
ユ
ニ
。
Tem 叶口 lure ( C
;
甘
。
Guyuan
Fengn血旦
5. Conclusion
70's - 60's
。
| 80's - 70's
JA
0 318
0 054
0 000
0 867
0 170
0 120
0 598
0 137
0 3%
0 112
・
，
・
・
・
・
・
・
・
・
Precipitation (nun)
|
80's - 70's
70's - 60's
16.70
67.06
35.26
64.20
53.30
-44.46
-70.40
-56.22
-57.70
-75.40
The areas of sandy desertified land have developed very quickly from 1975 to 1987 in Bashang region
of the North China as the serious desertified lands (in degree of moderate.severeand very severe) have
increased 6,169 sq.km.. The major dynamic causes, were human excessive land use such as
overreclaiming, over grazing and wood collection. Although it is believed that the small variation of
temperature and precipitationbased on the semi-ciimate could accelerate the process of land
degradation, the difficult thing is we don t understand how much its contribution
was. It has been proved
口l remotely-sensed data applied could be effective tool for studying sandy
that the mult@tempo
deSe 川甘CaLon
・
References
Wang Tao (1989): Journal of Desert Research, 9(1): 113-136
Wang Tao (1991): Journal of Desert Research, 11(3): 39-45.
Zhu Che, Wu Wei (1994): Journal of Desert Research, 14(4): 98-103
Zhu Zhenda, U'u Shu (1989): Desertification and its rehabilitationin China, Science Press, Beijing, 170
Zhu Zhenda, Wang Tao (19SO): Ada GeographicaSinica,45(4): 430-440.
Zhu Zhenda, Wang Tao (1992): Quaternary Sciences, 2:97-106.
It
（的血
HMd
川 S
Evaluation ofMultitemporal Techniques to Map and MonitorLand-CoverChange
in Arid and Semi-Arid Environments
Yuji HIROSAWA*and Stuart E. MARSH"
Abstract - Multitemporal techniques to characterize vegetation type and to detect land-cover change based
examined using NOAA AVHRR data. We introducethe concept of
by the first two principal components derived from a three year
multitemporal NDVI dataset.This vegetationvector was successfullyused to characterizevegetationtype
and could be used to explainthe seasonalchange of vegetation.The vegetationvectors were also createdfor
each year and the inter-annualdifferenceof thevector could be usedto explainbothchanges in the amount
of vegetationandthepattern of seasonalchange.
upon phonological characteristics
were
a vegetation vector, which is defined
Key Words: NOAA AVHRR. PrincipalComponentAnalysis,AridEnvironments,Multitemporal Studies
1. Introduction
Multitemporal satelliteimages are an important source of information for the analysis of land-cover
change,particularlywhen vegetationis used as an indexof change. Any attempt to analyzethis change
;j
R
低蕊掛閣
S
L
A
茸丘晶ぽ肯おぽ群ぎ ;ほ三 川 * 器ご斗蕊
" 荘L催F 舌点即貯 L 庶おぽ。茸
analysis to develop a new multitemporal technique to independentlydetect seasonal and inter-annual
vegetation change. Changesin vegetation were also related to precipitation for a study site in Arizona
乱
2 Data
・
JA
。
Data f「Om 出 e AdV川CedVeryHi 如 ResolutionRadiometer(A
) On 山 e NationaIoceanlcand
AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA) satellites have been used by many researchers to compile
biweekly
multitemporal
maximum
data
value
sets
for
composite
the
evaluation
images
of
ofvegetation.
the
Normalized
The
Difference
data
set
used
Vegetation
inthis
research
Index
(NDVI)
isthe
prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center. NDVI is defined as
皿VI 。ロ"
・
川"
，
where N^.and R^ are reflectance factors in the near-infrared and red regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Each image was compiled from multiple dates of data over a two week period by
compositingpixels exhibitingthe maximumNDVI in order to reduce the effects of cloud contamination
and atmosphericattenuation. One composite imagecovers the conterminousU.S. with a 1 km cell size
and data from 1989 - 1994 are available on CD-ROM
A rectangular study area which covers the entirestate of Arizona was extracted for our research. The
extracted area consists of 636 columns x 759 rows and we utilized data from 1990, 1991 and 1992
whichhave 19, 21 and 20 composite images respectively
To examine vegetation communitieswithin the study area, a map of the Natural Vegetation
Communities in Arizona (Brown and Lowe, 1964), was utilized. Climatic data available from the
National
monthly
precipitation
Climatic
Data
data.
Center
Summary
ofThe
Day
(Earthlnfo
Inc.,
1994)
was
utilized
toextract
―
* Instituteof Technology,Shimizu Corporation,Kot0-ku Tokyo 135, Japan (Fax:+81-3-3643-7260)
** Office of Arid Lands Studies, Univ. of Arizona, TucsonAZ 85719, U.S.A
184
;Rw呈なこ L PllrlCN*
三椙X ，三ぷぱ斗舌 8
三
三
vegetation
三三
*
。
LPぽ FF LnR
三
三フ日二三科
、
，
仁よ酊三
干
，
1stPO@
て所 三
tL
二百
・
01
the
5%
second
ofPC,though
thevariance
contributing
totheonly
total 0 2 0
multitemporaldata set,
clearly
十ト・
・
・
・
120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 1080
Julian Day from Jan.1,1990
mg)wiCa
F
Natural Communitiesmap. However,
JA
三茸ギま
弗藻点目早 言箱節鰯草蕊澄浦Fき三請鞘違賎蓮
The concept of the vegetation
vector is shown in Figure 2
When a pixel's first and second
PC
standardized
RLぢま山器
、。
肝
scores
1
are
: 弍 p 緒;
E5:pixel.PFoTI0l
;h L O L
。
目ぢま占
。
三 ア三
、
江晋日
丁 三三
hi
S
L
A
藤舌緊 遼姦薩菜至再琵乏笛鹿点蕪蒲藍卜擦
when applying PCA
諸再
Fま斉藻嶽華雀鎧芽目卍届 E牒
TwoL
eld0I; di(:
茸点
the
phenological
characteristicof the pixels or its
55
*
vector
for
three
of
the
representative
vegetationtypes
within Arizona and Figure
∼
go
RichVegetation
互
oめ
0
2nd PC
(5班
'
" 伽)
8
40
膏
）
への
卜のト
35
30
25
Less Vegetation
direction
ofthevegetation
vector
inS 而
in Summer
20
の茸
4
types.
categorized
Theasdirection
shown
10
Cg
50
LL
で
ofFigure
the
direction
3shows
ofthe
histograms
vegetation
ぽご ぽ三器
601
express
vegetation type
て器日描 ほ詔 は
4 MuchVegetation
be
distance
alternatively
and
direction
defined
from
using
theRich
Vegetation
，
きま
5
13
49
17
45
hisEog
used
be
can
pheno
differe
the
m S
4
SAF
SAF:Spruce - Alpine Fir Forest (770 pixels)
PDG:Plains & Desert Grassland (65,862 pixel
SDS:SonoranDesert Scrub, Arizona Upland (
Figure 3. Histograms of Angle of the Vegetation Vectors.
as shown in Figure 2. Frequency is
CO 山
Figure
mUnlty
2.
characteristics
types
The
profile
of the
L
A
A
of these vegetation
4 Chanee Vector
J
Figure
5 The
same
deriv
quantities
from
the PCA
described above were also extract
here
significantly
from
June
more
to
precipitation
August
1990
Julian Day from Jan.1,1990
end of Mean NDV1. NDVI
-04 0
60
120
180
240
Julian Day from Jan-1
300
has
been
360
compared
1991
and
1992.
tothe
The
same
peak
period
ofNDVI
in Figure
5 Coefficient
ofEigenvectors
oftheFirst
Two
from August to September in 1990
was also his>her. As this change
Principal Components.
PCA was applied to three years of
data separately.
186
contributes
second
PC
as
score
anegative
(see
Figure
factor
5),
tothe 2
score of the second PC in 1990 was
significantlysmallerthan that of 1991
1990
and 1992
5. Conclusion
1992
じ
Sc
tlSe ; 咄腰耳p ; d; UtU
Ls
3ぽ
、、。、点
，
are
a
，
useful
。
means
ぎ
はこ
）
1991
て
of
-2
寸
0
2nd PC
Figure 6. ChangeVector on Santa-Rita Experimental
Range
S
L
A
300
三
亡
200
JA
巳
'c'150
口
7
山
100
Monthof Yearfrom 1990to 1992
2 5
・
2
・
0
上千一ノ口
1 0
・
ヱ
0 5
・
0
・
0
Figure?.Monthly
Trend of Precipitation
and NDVIon SantaRitaExperimentalRange. NDVIhas been standardized.
d
獅
5
ヰ
alO
JOu
川
"
恥山
川
EFFECTIVE
POROSITY
BY A FIELD
TRACER
OF A SEDIMENTARY
TEST
USING
ROCK
TRITIUM
DETERMINED
AS A TRACER
Hiroyuki Ii*, Yoshiyuki Ohtsuka* andShinya Misawa**
Abstract - We measured effective porosity values from the tritium concentration distribution for the
d川at 可 and m口 [ed SpeCiGGC
yie]d. EmmeCtivePOpoSity 川 d
C山C 刀eld
udぬ to 卜
groundwaterflow velocity. Some water stored in a sedimentary rock can be used only by a drainage
町
mp 川 if;edwith mpid
『
耳 Oundwaterlevel change.However, after
undwater Ievel ChangePopewater
口 n血 uedtnhe
司
ere ぬ ほ mostwaier
寸Ommdinasediment
山止
卜低口 fora]ongtime
叩
印
・
，
Key words;Effective porosity,longitudinal dispersivity,tritium, tracer test
1. Introduction
A lot of groundwaterpumped up through deep boreholes and wells was used for desert
development.Planned or controlled pumpingof groundwateris necessary because the water table
lowers and the water content of the aquifer decreases. It is necessary for the controlling of pumping
to clear groundwaterflow. Effective porosity which was necessary for estimation of groundwater
flow and storage volumeof undergrounddam, was analyzed by a tracer test.
Tritium, whichis an unstable isotope with a half life of 12.43 years, is produced naturallyin the
neutrons and nitrogen. Free tritium
earth's atmosphere from reactions between cosmic-ray-produced
most commonly collides with Qz and enters the water cycle. Therefore, rainwater contains a
detectableconcentration of tritium. The tritium concentrationfor groundwaterdepends on recharge
time because the source of the tritium for the groundwateris only rainwater and tritium is an unstable
isotope.Tbe rechargeddmeCau
be 口口 bt 口 f「Om e 血e 九 Veporosity vaIueS,hydraulic のnduC甘 vi り，
山e 匹 O
JA
S
L
A
dwater level,and disperSion 口 emmmCient.We
卜
at 田 effective
porosity
v 寸u 卜
f「Om 山。
tritium concentrationdistribution for the groundwater.The Matsumoto tunne1, approximately2000 m
in length, was being constructed within a plateau north of Matsumoto city in centralJapan. Tunnel
constructionbeganin October 1990 and finished in April 1992. The total volumes of seepage water at
the west side and the east side of the tunnel were 1.2 and 1.6 million tons. The porosity values
determined by the weight of samples in both water saturated and dry conditions were 7 ~ 15 %
2. Tritium concentration
Fig. 1 shows the change of tritium concentration. Sampling seepage water within a tunnel under
の瓜加 C甘 On i5 川 emeC廿 ve way to get 四 OundwaterM 山 noutmiXing 山e 匹 Ound川aat汀 at 山e d 而eLnt
口n 叶 n 血tLnQLr
三三
福ほほ ; 品了
ア
三。。
:1
Sea
了仁三，
山etunnelseepagewateIwereundero.3
;d
ぼア三監
・
・
i晋よ三三北口 R監 仁 三ぽ 拮弍哀 仁三 L二 ;目二
E乏日ぼ
二
T U *ex 印 ptfor5omewaterwhoSeNo3-
，
・
晋
。
Wate
L O1
二日篇
芯 三
「
日日
yearSo.
x ig;jlSlthe
SbSla
盟 *; 三 "d (t5o
。
、三三三三
三三
三才
二ご
poTatIon
447BChuo
a3Chome
KOto
kuTOkyo
135
Jap
川
荏 『毘 お言;韮お 「
山
而
** NaganoPublicRoad Corporation1020, Shimadati,Matsumot0-city, Nagano 390, Japan
，
，
，
，
・
，
，
188
20
Sprfngw@lcrinlhemld
*
Small river
。
、
川。
。d
" ト。ト
WQllatthe(
"
口
。
。
"
lo
。。可
)
for
山e
T U
・
，
卜口USe
山e
T U 5O ye
，
ago
・
e
・
groundwaterlevel was
assumed to equal with
山e
topo phi 回
420 斗
ww
tritium
tritium
concentration
forp ぼおF 百tIon 市山 e
Tokyo area was 10
' '"' 。 "8" 川川nC'(
!
S6eP480
@q apong@he@qnnel
川口 side)
吋司ト
1
。
v5L
The
precipitationwas about
。
O[@heplI@
のト
，
の L 口n 血 HOn
'" " 。，
。" 0"…、。。ぬ
" 。。" "
。。
(mCd 山!nQ卜ロtbe 旬@gnCbnpmq 田
ア如 " ( アの
1O
3
lヰ Lo[lhePl刀卜レ
of(heptaiciu
Spring
wilcr
in(heupper
ponion
' 卜叫咋
ヒ
く
肚
ぬ
た " 血。・
groundwater level did
L
aii
not
change
before
elConS
C甘 On 山e
10/1/1990
5/19/19911/4/1992 8/21/1992 4/9/199311/25/19937/13/1994
3/1/1995
｜斗
，
seepage
Fig. 1 Changeof^ concentrationin the sampled water
J川A
@
ギ
八
"'"
、
i
'
'川
"
" ト，ノ
@ "
匁 l口
。
Fig. 2
。
l
water and migrationanalysis
modelat the horizontal section
ed to ぬ 市 a
S
L
A
3.lSee 碑咋
a卜
可vS]S
Fig.2 shows the seepage and migration analysis
modelat the horizontal section. There are 6 layers in
山emodel 川 d 山esum
山卜heSSof
山 eSe6byerSL
450 m. Table 1 displays the parameters and boundary
conditions used in the seepage and migration
analysis. TTie equation governing steady-state
groundwater flow in a three-dimensional system is
generallygivenas uniform medium,
山け
seepage
analysis was
が市
の
方
0
寸
Table 1 Parameters and boundary conditions used in the
seepage and migration analysis
where 0 :piezometrichead,and x, y, z: Cartesian
血""d" l @ H ghtSf 坤 ""d 而 ( 師 lanl) cooIdiDates.The system bounda
「
heSarc @mpe 口ble
excepting the tunnel and springs. Boundary
Boundary condition
I山 re 川 e bl
conditions can be given as follows,
。ほ。
。， 。
口
。
，
。
へ
T卜血mConCent
「
atton
of ground surface
Decay constant
H
ノ
ノ
口山三
n
口
口
比
L
p
め
・
n
lt
epOm
斗
I卜
耐。ノ
ノ
"
ノ
l
U (
・
1 77X1 ぴ
・
。
ノ
口卜tan()
(L 卜ナ
ン川廿
a m15
4 = 0o
寸 tbe 山etUnnelandsp nngs
『
(2)
a1y
e) Page
山 waseP rforme e 9
Se
工
boundary
・
山
5ing
e
皿 plified
（ e
・ aly was
2.8xi0-'~2.8xi0-scmscc-i where <6a : steady-state piezometric
head level
.A
in
FEM
duuSIng
1
12
・ .100
189
conditions described by eq. (2).
3.2 Migration analysis
A 口 upl 九円uatjon5t 印 dy Sぬte goveIning 耳Oundwaterfqowand
advCCtiondiSpeMonin
・
dimensionalsystem is given as follows,
青
(D
苛)
(D
苛)
(D
舌)
aC
。
三
g
・
LL
二
/6
だ
去
，
a
・
E
だ
三
d
三 (依
・
/6 低日ぽ /6
C) ( (C)
i (LC)
F
―
ラ
才
D 二 fo lV
，
a
l
ゅ
，
lV
―
あ
・
l 二
干
―
九
ゼアノ十 y が十 Vが
(3)
where e '. effective porosity value, C : concentration, D : dispersion coefficient, a: longitudinal
dispcrsivity, ^ : decay constant, Vx, Vy, Vz : actual velocity in the x, y and z directions, and vx,
vy, vz : apparent velocity in the x, y and z directions. The dispersion coefficient is isotropic. The
system boundaries arc impermeable
except at the borehole.
F
=
(4)
FOat 山eborChoIe
S
L
A
Where F : flux of mass ( A C/ A t) , and Fo: flux of mass at the borehole. A migration analysis
was performed using FEM and the boundary conditions described by eq.(3).
4. Results and discussion
In this tracer test, from the governing eq.(3) and the initial and boundary conditions, effective
porosity-values, longitudinal dispersivity and hydraulic conductivityarc unknown parameters for this
migration analysis. Longitudinal dispersivity is empirically about one tenth of the distance between
JA
;;;; ;;i *E i:;: E;;;
Eld;F; ;;
ぎ
ぢ。
三
; 蒲三
こ まま
員法百
and 0.48 percent effective porosity value were determined at the Matsumototunnel by li (1995 )
呈
呈，
，。
Even if longitudinal dispersivity varies from 1 m to 100 m, when the effective porosity value is 10
percent and hydraulic conductivity is less than 5.6 X 10'6 cm sec-1, the analyzed tritium concentration
distribution at the tunnel is in accordance with the measured results ( Fie.3, 4). Therefore, when the
flow velocity value is 1 X 10'5 m sec'1, the effective porosity value coincides with the porosity value
At the Matsumototunnel a tracer test was performed by injecting a Br solution into a borehole
during construction by li and others ( 1993 ), li and others ( 1994 ) and U ( 1995 ). The calculated
effective porosity value was 0.48 percent and the flow velocity was 1.8 X 10'2 cm sec"1.
If tunnel seepage is free water in the rocks
unsaturated during tunnel construction,
specific yield value is calculated to be 0.6
pcrCent by 山e total volume of 山G 口
el
and the total volume of the rock
unsaturatedduring tunnel construction. The
specif6c yieid value was smalIeI th山山 e
porosityvalue( 7~15 percent ). However,
the seepage water was derived from
seepage
4000 5000
Fie. 3 Analyzed @@concentrationdistribution
e=l0%,K=5
6X 1O G 而 SeC-l)
( 八-B sectjonaIplan,a =lm,
・
・
unsaturated rock which had been already
dIained
du ing
「
山C
耳 OundwateI
level
change. The tritium concentration for the
Seepagewatcr
，
wa5 0 6 T U 。 卜山口ted
・
・
t
190
the seepage water was not surface water,
Therefore,specificyieldvalueincreased,as
山e
e 血 er 山e 耳 oundwatCrlevelCh 皿咋
elapsed.Thus specificyield value is due to
drainage time. During groundwaterlevel
change, 0.6 percent pore water was drained
and after groundwaterlevel change pore
Wate「の nHnuedto 低 d 口 lned
Thus, some water stored in a sedimentary
rock can
Fig. 4 Analyzed 5H concentration distribution
S如 寸
二
K二 2
川つ口
(A-B !ionDpIan
O=ime l0%
，
，
，
・
8X
be used only by a drainage
田市山口 pid 四 OundwatGrlevel
change. However, after groundwaterlevel
山川 昨 pore water の H血lu 口 m be dnined
a
5eC-])
mp
0
三三目ぽ口
・
eXterStoTed
三: ぎ
は
ア
5. Conclusion
When the flow velocity was more than 1.8X10-2 cm sec-1, the effective porosity value was
smaller than the porosity value. However when the flow velocity was 1 X 10'5 cm sec'1 in the same
area, the effective porosity value coincided with the porosity values. Therefore, effective porosity
value is concluded to be due to groundwaterflow velocity.
Specific yield value during groundwaterlevel change was 0.6 percent. However as pore water
continued to be drained after groundwaterlevel change finished, specific yield value becamelarger
than specific yield value only during groundwaterchange
MF
S
L
A
JA
旺N旺
li H, Ishikawa Y, Sugihara K andUtsugida Y (1993 ) Estimationof scaleeffect on effectiveporosityandlongitudinal
dispersivity of a Tertiary sedimentary rock by laboratory tracertests and a field tracer test. Hannover
htematIon 山 S低 IatIon ofHvdFoE 叩I[I0
可払 4 ; u 十 162
・
li H andMisawaS ( 1994) Tie groundwaterchemistlywithin a plateauneighboring Matsumotocity, Japan.]_
EnvironmentalGeology. 24 (3) : 166.175
[i H, Misawa S andKawamura
R ( 1994) Effectiveporosity,longitudinaldispersivityandhydraulicconductivity of a
Sediment
叫 formation deteImIned by f6eId口C町 teSting,thpee-dimenSional
耳 。 undwate HOOOOWand
adve口i 川 dispersion FEM : Proceeding of the 7th congress of the International Association of Engineering Geology
MBa 止ema Publi5heめ， R。 WeM川 :4213 4221
I;H (1995 )
呵卜 e 四 roS 吋川 d long 而 d九寸 diS咋 山川 y Qf 斗
en
卜 dete
司 by ]a山 ntoけ !andf6eld
L叱 J 山" 血 "me" 日 G印 ]0可乃口 :71-め
ヰ
・
・
・
Pickens JF andGrisak GE (1981a ) Scale-dependentdispersionin a saturatedgranularaquifer.Water Resource
Research. 17 (4) : 1191-1211
PickensJF andGrisak GE ( 1981b) Modeling of scale-dependent
dispersionin hydrogeologic systems. Water Resource
Research.17 (6) : 1701-1711
WSSKSi 5S. 191-194(1995)
Journal of Arid Land Studies
Tracing the movement of sand salts during evaporation through a cotton cloth core
and sand and polymer tube inserted into sand using three different anions as tracers
Yoshiyuki OHTSUKA*,
Yukuo ABE** and
Hiroyuki II*, Tetsuo OGAWA**
TomoharuYAMAGUCHI**
ABSTRACT * The movement
of sand salts through both a cotton cloth core and a sand and polymer tube stuck
into sand during evaporation was studied using three kinds of anions as tracers. When the cotton cloth core was
stuck into the sand, salt water was mainly transported from the mid and lower depth sands to the upper section of
the cotton cloth core through the mid and lower sections of the cotton cloth core. A little salt water was
transported from the lower sand to the surface sand and from the surface sand to the cotton cloth core. When the
sand and polymer tube was stuck into the sand, salt water was mainly transported from the lower sand to the
surface sand. At the beginning
of evaporation, the surface sand and polymer tube was dried up. There was no
migration toward the sand andpolymer tubeburiedin the sandfrom the surroundingsand.
Key Words: evaporation,migration, tracer, desert,salt
S
L
A
1. Introduction
Salt accumulationin soil is a serious problem for agricultural areas in arid and semi-arid lands.
Although leaching soil is an effective methodto rid excess salts of soi1, leaching requires a lot of
water and drainage produced by leaching must be dealt with ( FAO/Unesco 1967, USA National
Academy Sciences 1974 ). Abe et al ( 1992 ) and U et al ( 1993 ) studied new methodsof
accumulating
salt within a paper core and a stick which were inserted into sand. These methodsused
only a little water which the sand needed to be saturated with. After the sand was saturated with
water, the salt whichwas in the sand during evaporation was accumulated
in a paper core and stick
As the apparatus of the previous experiments was very smal1, the larger apparatus was utilized for
JA
而 Sc 巾 dy TbreekiDds of 皿 ionSweIeusedas
也叶 n 川 d 呵卸 t 口 into 山村emntposition5in
and salt migration within the sand was studied in detail
・
2
Hment寸 method
・
2 工血 t ぬ
・
山eS 川 d
Fig.1 shows the Wagner pot ( l/2000a and 250 mm in diameter ) with an inner diameter of 250 mm
and a height of 300 mm. The Wagner pot was filled with a 18.5 to 19.0 kg sand and 3.7 to 3.8 kg
g C@'3.The sand was river sand whose true gravity density was 2.69 g L@'3. The initial salt content
in the sand was negligible. A cotton cloth and sand with absorbent polymer were used for the
experimentbecause they were porous and absorbed a lot of water. The cotton cloth was coiled around
a wooden stick. Its length was 350 mm and diameter was 38 mm. The original water content was 0.4
9
3 A のtton 巾lbe was fGIIedwith a mIxtUpe of 95 % sand (FtatteIy qua 厄 -S 川 d LOm AuStTaIja)
and 5 % absorbent polymer. Both its ends were closed. Its length was 300 mm and diameter was 40
mm and thedry densitywas 1.5 g L@'3.The original water content was 0.85 g L@'3.This is termed
抑d 川 d plyme 口ube
・
・
・
:
g: :;E L*) jzu
Corpo
mtion.3@4-17Etch
iInaOto
kuTokyo
35Jap
肝三三 三 ご3日邑 ぶ
『
山
Iく
如
** : Agriculturaland ForestEngineering, UniversityofTsukuba.Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305 Japan
，
，
・
，
，
寸
192
A cotton clothcore andsandandpolymer tubesaturatedwith a distilledwater were insertedintothe
centerof thesand.A 20 cm3NaBr solutionwhose concentration
was 5 % was injectedintothecenter
bottom of the sand. A 20 cm3Na2S04solutionwhose concentration
was 5 % was injectedinto the
boundarvof 山e5 如 d 川 d 山eWagnerpotl2
卜 depth.
2 2 Method
・
TTieWagnerpots were driedin the soiltronwhichwas a controlledglasshousefor soil environment
researchat the farm in theUniversityof Tsukuba. The atmosphericenvironmentwithin the soiltron
but duringthe experimentalperiod,the soiltronwas
couldbe conditionedwith the air-conditioner,
beingnaturallyventilatedwith opening thetopandsidewindows.During theexperiment,theweights
of the Wagnerpots were measured.At eachdegreeof saturation,the Wagnerpots were dismantled
andseparatedas shownin Fig.1. Distributionsof water contentwere determinedby weights in both
water saturatedand dry conditionsand Cl', Br and S042' concentrations
were determinedby ion
exCh川昨
Omato phyfoI 山e の他 n dlo山 lCoIe,sandandpolymer 血卜 and sand
3. Exoerimentalresults and discussion
S
L
A
3.1 Cotton cloth core
The numbersin Fig.2 show eachdegreeof saturationandwater content distributionsin thesand
andthe cotton clothcore. The numbersin Fie.3,4 and5 show eachdegreeof saturationand Cl', BrandS042' concentrationdistributionsin thesand andthe cottonclothcore on a dry basis. Thewater
JA
content of sand decreased from the surface sand to the deeper sand. However the water content in the
cotton clothcore was kept to be high anduniform(homogeneous).From 100 % to 42 % degreeof
saturation,thewater content in thecotton clothcore was unchangedto be 0.25 ~ 0.4 g cm'3 but the
water contentin thesurfacesanddecreased
to be fromabout0.28 to 0.03 g cm'3.
me 口 口 nC切血 tIon 卜山 eupperSeCtionof 山ecotton dlo山の peand山e 5uぱaCe5Md inCI口 Sed
maIkedly.However 山e a" COncent
『
mtjonin 山e 5 aCe 5and Suwounding山e の而n Clo山のre
decreasedfrom 42 % to 60 % degreeof saturation.The C1-concentrations
in boththemid andlower
・
depthsand decreased.The Br concentration
in the injectedsand decreasedbut the Br found in the
cotton clothcore surroundingthe injectedsand increased.Especiallythe Br in the upper sectionof
thecotton clothcore increasedremarkably.Therefore,most Br migratedfrom theBr injectedsandto
the upper section of the cotton cloth core through the mid and lower sections of the cotton cloth core.
The Br concentration
in the surfacesand increased.The S042' concentration
in the injectedsand
decreasedbut the S042" found in the sandbelow the injectedsand increasedfrom 100 % to 80 %
degreeof saturation.Thereforefirstly, S042' migratedin a downwardsdirection.From 80 % degree
of saturation,the S042' concentration
in the upper sectionof the cottoncloth core and the surface
sandincreased.As shownin Fig.6, duringevaporationsalt water was transportedfrom the midand
lower depthsandto the upper sectionof the cotton clothcore throughthe mid andlower sectionof
血e の tton dlo山の『
m and alittte saltwaterwastranSpo 『
nCd f「OmthGlower sand to 山e 5面aCe Sand
and salt water was little transportedfrom the surface sand to the cotton cloth core
3 2 Sand 川 d pol
eI 口比
・
enumberSinF 卜 2 寸 Ow 口比九 町eeofsatumtionandwater
『
のntentdI5田 butio瓜 b 山eSmd 川 d
山esandand polymeI口比・ 凡enumbers 血 Fje 3 4and 5 showeachdegreeofSatuationand
『
口"
Br 川 d S042・の nc切屈ぱ on dist「
Hhutionsinthesandand山lesandand polymeI口比 On ad ワ baSiS
The water contentin the sand andthe sandand polymer tubedecreasedfromthe surfaces.At 50 %
degreeof saturation,the upper sectionsof the sand and polymer tubewere dried up. Howeverthe
」
・
，
，
・
content in the mid and lower sections of the sand and polymer tube were unchanged to be 0.7 g
cm-3. Even at 28 % degree of saturation, the water content in the lower section of the sand and
polymer tube was 0.95 g cm'3.
The Cl" concentrations in the surface sands increased. Howeverthe CI" concentrations in the
water
sand and polymer tube were unchanged to be very low. The Cl" concentrations in the mid depth and
the lower depth sands decreased. The Br concentration in the injected sand decreased from 100 % t0
80 % degree of saturation. The Br concentration found in the sand surrounding the injected sand and
m the surface sand increased. Howeverthe Br- concentrations
in the sand and polymer tube were
unchanged to be very low. The S042' concentration in the injected sand decreased from 100 % to 80
% degree of saturation. The S042- concentrations in the surface sand increased. HowevertheS042'
conccntrations in the sand and polymer tube were unchanged to be very low. As shownin Fig.6, salt
water was mainly transported from the lower sand to the surface sand. There was no migration
toward the sand and polymer tube buried in the sand from the surrounding sand.
4. Conclusion
As the cotto
aintained a high water
the upper section o
c seems to have been
through the cotton cloth core. Therefore, a lot of salt in the
S
L
A
e
to have been accumulated from the sand,
seems
cotton
cloth
core
As the sand and polymer tube was completely dry at the beginning of evaporation, the evaporation
rate of water from sand and polymer tube seems to be larger than the velocity of capillary water
movement through the sand and polymer tube. There was no migration toward the sand and polymer
tube. Therefore, salt water movedmainly from the lower depth sand to the surface sand and the
accumulated salt in the sand and polymer tube was very low
5i
JA
・
口 CE
Ate, Y, Yamaguchi, T., Yokola, S., Ohisuka, Y. and li, H. (1992) : The capture methods of Ihe sail accumulated on
the surfdce of soi1. J. Arid land study. 2:19-27.
FEL1TSIANT,I N. (1966) : Regularily
of capillary movement of water and soil solutions
in stratified soils. Translated
from Russian, Israel Program for Scientific Translalions,
Jerusalem.
FAO 山川口 co(l967):
@c 川 al4 川 9@lSL4@sour
じカ no On@ 何@94 か on and 山刀 り叫が andA知山川田丸 LL to 口血什
如イ
H Ohlsu 卜
人
・
ムガ
刃人 al@ 刀 My ・ 563-62
フ
aT
Y anandYa
Yro 畔川
Abe
rol1. J. Arid land iludv. 3:1-7
USA National Academy of Sciences
，
a
，
，
・，
，
・
川叫
ucuch@,T.(tgg
斗 :E? 山川 川 Ms@uり
ons
川口
p
y
melhMu づ叫
paper
Fig.1
Test
and cotton
apparatus (Wagner pot filled with sand
cloth
core
or
sand and polymer tube
)
Fig,6 Schematics of migration in the cotton
cloth core and sand and polymer lube
194
lube
JA
1
S
L
A
and
sail
60
s0%
tuba
p
1
4:'-d
on
cloSh
sand and pol
n
llie
r
tube
^SSK^. 5S. 195-198(1895)
Journal of Arid Land Studies
Remediation
And Rehabilitation
Of Oi1-Contaminated
Lake Beds
Kuwa エt De8e てt
In
Nader AL-AWADHP, M. Talaat
BALBA*, Kazmer PUSKAS*, Reyad
HiroyukiCHINo**,
KiyokazuTSUJI**,
Masakazu
Hirokazu TSUJI*¥
and Shinsei
KUMAMOT<y**
st
エ aCt@
This
paPef
th 「 ee
yea
sustantial
progress
and
土 nVe 日 t エ agated
to
Lu
K エ 5R/P]PBC
contamination.
。。
""
soil
a
to
血 """
sludge,
Oil
。。
the
f エ eeld
eva 工 uated3
p え上 e 日だエ tted
甘エth
oil
瓜
b ユ。て
e
Over six
and OCCupat
the
d ヨ St
now
hea
at ユ 。 n
「
m@ne
penetration
and
the
the
moderately
to
site
the
natu 「 e
was observed
contaminated
て
obta
ユ ned
エn
DuL 土 ng
・
of
hazard
to
・
亡
土工 e
O互
deep in
treatment
soil
and 5000 m3 lightly
S
L
A
PhyL
，
laboratory
for the treatment
of
soil
which
can
not treated
土 Ca オハ。 he
血 Cal
g エ ea
如 nt
L*2g2
a Iheao
lf Om gS安L
ま言
man
cleared,
･
contaminated
，まき ぽ、
「
。，
22 million
barrels
て ema ユ n heav ユ ly contam@nated
actively
considered
so that
土工工
yea て Oだ
pe て土 Odr
だ Oて
the
contaminated
soil
巳エ亡だ
e て ent methods
are
be エ ng
land で a:am@ng,
「
wユ ndnd
エ Ow CO
O日 t エ ng So エエ p エエ色 S and stat
エC
]fo 「 ced ae て a セ土olon. App て Op エエ aate phy 卜ユ Ca エノ Che Cるエ
thodS
JA
・。，。
recovery
｣エて st
th 土ヨ
was
selected,
mine
and
d 土日 tr ユ bbut え On pro
as deep as 2 5 meter
hundreds
of Kuwait's
oil wells
were
exploded
of Kuwa ユ t ユ n 上 g90, 「 esult ユ ng ユ n the wo 「 st
エ OOn
being
th
has been made:
dete
results
prog
，
「 e 皇 ea て C ね
，
B エ。て e 庇口エ at ユ 。n
Sur 工 aCtant
Key
まよ員
0 エ In
nt
also developed
and tested
in the
sludge
and heavily
contaminated
were
in
the
てユ巳 e ヨ
コ
2000 m3 heavy
treatment of
T三
「
AL-DAHER*,
IWABUCHP**
and
als<so to
S 。エ上
，
during
enV
the
by
the
エ no
enta
Iraqi
Rf(
工
invasion
d エ sa
色 te
てユn
00
。 g ， ぽ山ナぎ ざ、
g 品ま 。
「， ミ
、 o まき
crude oil from these
lakes
but the lake
The reIued エ aat エ Olon o 上 the o エエ上ake beds エ日
oil contamination
does not pose
a critical
of
・
st@mu
工 atethe
て巳
sto
エ at
ユ O]on Oだ tthe
damaged
eCo
y 色t
(n t-Awadh
tute 0et SCent
1992)
CRepea
n July
Ch(x 994a
SR)and
joint
Japan
research
Petroleum
program
Energy
between
Center
Kuwait
(PEC)
ヨ
土互
エ
to
deve エ op
エ n x 八 wa エ t
area
・
◆
エ
・
Pro
エt
g
コ
て
e<eCt
，
ユエ
エ ntended
"Act
an
ユ oon plan
。
だ
て e 口e<edユニ t エ o:onof
the
or
to
ay
上 Oundat
de 川ongtrat
the necessary
the
も
ユ On
ユ OL
互
OE
O上
data
a 工工 -o エ ll ContamLnateddesert
so ユエ
・
o 上 Imore
than
5O hectares
material
and
select;
completed
was
ユ oon wa 日 based
in two phases*
on
ユ
、 互廿
エ
CO て
エ
・
TOkyo
エ土エ
ユ
ク
Japan
・
「
severa
in the
xuwa
Obayagh
t Inat
Corp.r
tuteTokyo,
porSC
Japan
ent CResea
ch,Kuwait
p
Sh"
エ
the
上 ield-scale
in order to obtain
・
contaminated
人十
十十
The
土 寸土
lS pL
aL ユ ly
tat エ ng
xuwa
environment
through
and physica1-chemical
technologies
エnユt エ
rehab エオ土
biological
巳工 土
・，
て
ated
・
て
was
工
工
first
reasons
phase,
エ nClud
a
ユ ng
total
Fax:965-483-4670)
196
5O Cm e 入CaVat ユ on depth
互 :Com the
top
も ur だ ace
o 工 the s 工 udge 工 eVe@ was
aCb エ eVed
Th エも
in
2,0l2
mヨ 。茸 contaminated
L 。 エエ wb ユ。九てe 叫ユ red
血 ad 血 t エ。 n
to
the oi エ日エ udge
DuL ユ Lg
the second
phase,
add エ t ユ olona エ 5 0O0 m3 o 亡 オユ ght 工y
COnt
nated
日 Oユオ甘 ag
て e 川oved
The
net エ aat ユ olon de
h of the Oエエ COnt
at 土 olon into
the S 廿 b8u て互 aCe so ユオ甘も日
ユ nVest エ agated by
col エ ecting
soil
samp 工 es at VaL エ ou8 depth
Trom several
test
p エ tsr
to
a predetermined
of
oil
contamination
was
examined
visually,
documented by photographs and by chemical analysis.
The soil was analyzed
fo 「 t 。 ta エ e 八t て aC 止
le
mateL 土色止
( 肛 H)
by
analyses,
total
petroleum
(TPH),
エR
ヨ
ct て 。 ph 。 t 。 Tet て土 C
teChL ユ
e apd
P 。 上 yaL 口
t 土。
(PAHs),
aPLC
and 巳 pCt て 。土 lu 。 可 h 。 t 。 庇 t てエ C Qgthods.
The
oi 工
St て
八 t エ olop pro 互エエ e with
ユ nQ the
subsurface
so ユ ll did
not 土 O1 工 Ow an サ C 上 ea て patteLn
possibly
due to the variable
geological
nature
of the Burgan area
and the presence
o 上 gatCh
lenses
エ n the
subSu 「 face
80 ユエ・エn ヨ Q肛 a 「 eas,
o エオ peLet て at エ ol wa ヨエ
ted
to the first
50 cm and in other
areas
penetration
was
as deep as 2.5 meters*
The
・
・
，
・
･
・
hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons
，
concentrations
samples,
ranged
ofbetween
TEMin20the
to analyzed
60% in
oil
sludge
and
between
0,03
to
so エエ・
ぬ花
8
e ected
n 如with
d 如a yエe8d把て
bye卸 se 寸CM
LaCted
瓜t g 吋aph
tb
24.8
% (P/w)
エn
adLt
ヨ色エ
でて 。
エ On
巳
(GC/PID)
cha 「 aCte
(P エ g 斗 )
エ
to
ク
the
エn
to
日八 b 日 u て互 ace
the
・
the
巳色
ana
。
determine
oま
y8 色
。
て
，
Cll
generalgeneral
the
0 エエ
エ
Cl ﾇ
S
L
A
COnt
nat ユ olon
The resu エ tswe 「 e comDa 「 ed wユ th
those o 互 crude o エ 1 g
工 e 工 Irom the
Lu エ a,n
亡エ e エ d [F ユ g
2)
d standa
エ d o 互 cauthent
エc
・
「 エ日 t 土 cS
･
Cl ト
CIS
athat
anthe
cCo
OundCOnt
Theresu
n t エ
On
ts bad日エ
Cated
O t
・
口
色
日ユ gn ユ上エ Cant
wh エ ch
巳
エエ
弍
ユ
エ
巳
JA
po て t エ on
o土
。。叫 ""
Su 可てエ s エ n<
not
土日
・
。"
the
如e
lowe
to
the
「
口
th 色
e 上ut
suggested
b エ Odegradat
surface
observed
エ。 n
also
エ on
hydrocarbons
of
extensive
凪 血上y
soi1,
less
degradation
at 20 cm and no degradation
be
depth
observed
Th
limitation
that
・
tablbolエ 日 m
エ日
・
which is
Oだ pet
エ Ole
the
was
払en
e t atOwgen
lowe F
t d廿
necessary
土n
oil
hy
。
for
active
OCa エ bon
plOt
上
and
エ
ed
tem
FOuL
ng
a
日
Sy
も
u
・
ヨ・
「
. 14.0
エ
Cユ 4
C26
exposure
anextended
toharsh
period.
weather
Thecondition
observed
shift
over
ユ
n
口
g ，ユぽ
in
/FI
Surface 咄
(0,C3)
師 。 茸比 e Soi
エ ExtraCt
0
・ 十
血
L
川
"肺
""
叫師エ・エ
ぽ
血。
血
"
和
・ェ
n
n-
197
e
O
l
g
p
de
t
g
P
n
C
fo optimumm
c Ob エ a
エ Yエ
p
g
p
P
e
p e 8
s
d , mn
has a he ghtgbt Of l.5 m
pエエ
f エ t d w、 th エ e ky Pユ
t
エ
廿エ
supply
O
" cLob エミ l g ，h dnd
コ。。エエ C
Fct エイ エ t エ
F工 4
s
c
sect エ on2oninthepオエ eS8Sh
エ ngthe
angement
O the 上 eaky p s The
p
Oe
a
S
x
t c
L
a
p
40
血入
:30
皿 eaeaeh@
we
「
co
打 st
て ucted
ナ
the
エ OCessed
so オ
to
エ Ye
3O
depth.
The エ Otsotg 「 上エエエ ed
エ ee
ek using agr エ CultLLa 工 rQtot
エエオ
and エエてエ 寸 teated bva
エ Vot
エ nE エ gat
Cm
ミ
er
エ
systemto
エ nta
「
エ ndr
エエ
エエ es
エエ
エ
we
3mw
ナ上エ
「
エ
const
廿
工
，
pe
nuou5
each
length
and
es
，
十
―
are
。
pLoV
de
wate
て
上 or
エ O@ 、
eS.eS-
色エ aht
Ighe
・
、
For
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o1
wdter
tyty.
止エ ngng
エ・
con
エ ent
act
エ
Co
・
so
su
て
ユ
the
土
met
a.
エ eprespn
上
ミ
エ Oss
FF
エ
エ
エ。 。
ナ
es
Fre
us
エ ngng
ae
エ at
turned
front
Fou
「
also
ま
the
g Ound
エ
も
土 noCu
エ abo
cap
bエエ上 t エ
L
工 ecL
so
Fg
and
エオ
土
エオ eg
in
p
だよ
cE
呈ま，
and
hydLoc
ミ
wh ユ chGh have
「 y.
TheEe
es,p
エミ
key
We
L工 cula
8tL
ミエ
エ aht
r
れ
Lan 』 Far
in
て
圏-姻
口 可ん坊
oB
a
剛
瑚
，山
yout
た
土つ エ
印
sys
，、巳お 、三三
to
寸オエ
for
and
S
L
A
parameters.
Certain
P
z
JすA
w h
・ コ
g a
other
PlotS
上七
ns,
「 ato
コ
エ ng
エ se
i 」X ，三
and
ng
エ ated
st エミエ
ナfor
乙
エ nS エ de
to the エ les@ and 亡 onneCted
to
provide
sufficient
oxygen
biodegradation
(L ミ tt ユ エエ
concentration
a
month
・
hydrocarbons
卜土
st
・
OnCe
constructed
compressors
laL
エ
エ <S
エ OLde
エ onon.
were
寸
丁
w
d
been
isolated
エ n the
h
c OC
lytt@towadsPAHsandhep
3Oil
n-ut
久エ ns
エ
エエ es
土エ土
ユ vs
土 ng
エ OcaL
nS
・
be
cLob
pLoUen
「
hyd
土エエ
ミ ta
ghe
エ
卜
エ
エエ
SO
エ上
b1g5Hndw
9Oe d a oononpIogL
COnt
nLe
i has
until
s-tarted
endofon
March,
June1st,
1996.
エ
4
・
土
Phvs
エ
たエ
土エエ
C
エ
ユ上 /Che
Te t
・
土
山エ cca 工
て
ユ
nt
processesweredeve
xosteck
he
teChno
VPo
lV
0g
andCa
het
es
con
ere
eabr
tmGnttoftheo
nated
eY
sel99990)
opedandthe
e ed(E
So
nas<paqgaretal
gu
l Le
tableweHashing
ySlud
pProP
c eaeand
enC
9g991;
ateatg
esF9.4cLosssegti
o0o
エ
・
ユ
were
エ七
エ
エ
assessed
エ
川 エ
十
in
工
エ
the
廿エ
エ
叫
laboratory.
エ， ユ上
エエ
エエ
ナ士ユ
二
Se
エ可
エエ e8
Oa
てエ
ユ
エ
止
斗
Composting
Pile
土エ
198
lo elenCy
"" and
2)
and》he
Soilwashed
washing
soil
with
contained
water,
kerosene
hWedup
l
to 78 ユも
3emoVale
6- 5.8%
肛C
H enCyft
BeStresu
eatedsol
ts were
conta
Obta
n(ned
ned
e ナ上十LCエ
s 八 r 十 aCtant
「
best:
WaShエ ng
「
ヨ
互だエ
・
emova
エ
エ
「
エ・
上
オ
も班
The best
， "n"
。 "m"
・
type C
experiments
4) Sludge wash エ n<
with kerosene reduced TEM from 29.4 % t0
エ5
0 もノ上u て the て WaShingw エ thwat 色 L て eduCed
TEM to 6.3%.
The contaminated
elevated
of
salt
・
川
ユ
エ
variable.
3) Soil
n tWo CyC ユ色 s p て uced up to 8 丁斗
e 互互エ C エ enCyr
t 「 eated
sample
・
吋
・
，
" 畔。，
2 ・ユ @ 2 6
、。 M 。 v 。 d with
the
of
best
r 土 zlzed エ n F ユ g
5
The
gu
叫。ト '
・
・
・
・
斗
"
寸
42
め
originatedDainly
to e t u h o we
Irom
theuse
e Salt
O seawate
COntent
ws an@mportant
l COn8
d red
8aCtorrif
O二色the
nytreated
p antat
SOi
olon.@01
八
エ
エ巳
だ
ユエ
エ エオ
エ
About
オエだエて
色
だ
・
寸
上
才
て
エ
エ
60% of the salt can be removed by the
SOユ l WaSh エ nnq エ n COnC 工八 8 エ 0n7 the て e 卜 u エ ts
demonstrated
that
the hydrocarbon
・
て
soil
JA
be used
the
treatment
the
site
Hal1,
of
for
greenery
or agricultural
oil
from the
London pp.
explosives
371-410.
iiﾈ
t卜
S
L
A
The recove v「
O上
日エ gn エ亡エ cant
o エエ
Cenptage でて 0 0 エ ly 巳 ludge 吋 ke て Ogene
will
十叫
and mines.
o
0 Rmio
8 ﾇ)(fflcl*ncy(
8 S ﾇ)3 ｡
purposes*
Cr
OL 5
あ
b ノ Or e 血 e 廿エ a t 7 OL
Cl: Chaired by J. Young i 1.
血 do
&M叶 LaLM
・
C2: Chaired by A. Bichund
・
Contents
Invited
A icles
Special
れれ
C1*18: Desert biosyste ﾈ s: A. Richmond, Ben-0urion
UnlY
@
町碑 l
・ ，
199-202
･
C2*U4: Guayule natural rubber: A proniising source of
latex for nodical products: F.S. Nakayana, It.
Cornish (DSDA-ABS), U.K. Schlonan, Jr. (Dniv. Akron),
USA
C3*19: Technology tor desert aouaculture:
Ben-Gurion
Univ.,
･
203-206
･
207-210
･
211-214
S. Appelbaun,
Israel
C4ﾈ 15: Bioreiiediation
of polluted soils in arid zones:
A. Abellovich, Z. Itonen, Ben-0urlon Bniv., Israe1
･
0riginal
Articles
S
L
A
C5-H2: Bioremediation:
international
A1-Anadhi,
JA
project
an overview based on
E. A1-toher,
experience:
USE,
M.T. Balba, B.
Kmalt
･
215-218
･
219-222
V8-U8: Evaluating technology tor autonated
deterniination of crop water status: H.D. Greenspan,
H.A.
Matthews, Univ. California,
USA
C7+01: Eole of air-polliitant-phUlc, high growth and
nigh protein content paulownia to contain
desertification:
nodelling, experience and
potential:
S. Sinha, V.K. Varshney (ICFEE),
S. Kunar (IIT Delhi), India
･
･
This
･
paper did
not
receive
a full
review.
C8-J25: Nell soil iiiprover for plant grortt: 1. Fujita
(nil), S. Hakiiri (Sangyo Shinko C0.), M. Taiayama
(Sugino Honen's Univ.), T. Isukatani (Kyoto Univ.),
Japan-
･
223-226
･
227-230
B11-C15: Ecotechniouesof water-savilK rice cultivation on sandy land:X.K. Huang, X.K. Lia, H.L. Zha0,
Z.Y. He, Lanzhou Inst. Desert Kes., Z.Z. Yan, Agri.
Inst.
Jielimi
League,
Clilna
C10+C13: The tactics and.ﾈ ays for coordination
developmentof forestry and animal husbandry in
Yiilln sand area Shaanxi Province: Q.Y. (ju,
Yulin Res. Inst. Sand Contro1, China
This
paper did
not
receive
a full
review.
C11-J3: Yield inprovenentof vegetables by using a
super-nater-absorbent polyer in sandy soil:
T. Yanasaki, H. Hatsunot0, J. Asano*, B. Toda,
Shizuoka Agri. Exp. Station, (* ﾈ at. Inst. Vegetable
･
･
･
Omanental Crops 6 Tea),
japan
･
231-234
川
-卜
山
d
51
%M
]
DesertBiosystems
Amos Richmond*
Key words: controlled greenhouse,radiationfilter, saline water, microalgaculture,bioreactors
Introduction
purposes
2.
S
L
A
JA
Controlled
2.1 The liauid
Greenhouse
radiation
filter (LRF).
E
Conventional
:
greenhouses
in warm
lands have to be
草ぼま ;i:
蕊蕊茸茸蔭潅 東目瑳罹
F監ぼ干丑蕊巧監
員毘監呈点國 F荘日藍
atmosphere,greatly reducing transpiration and net water consumption by the plants. The internal
energy
2.2.
The
from
enerey
the
greenhouse
handling
system
(during
is
sunny
based
hours)
onthe
and
LRF
returns
which
and
absorbs
distributes
and
stored
transports
orotherwise
excess
LE
三目 ぎ葺専
reUfrFho
L
丑F"
nyoml
Lg目荘三荘F F三茸
三
言よ
:長田法点餌ま届三
荘
，
usL
，
烹三
を三三
拝。
態ぢ
三まま 悲ゑ田 まま
。
lon<
ao
羊ぎ出 ミ三三 呈
某目三ま
ミ
三
吊丘 目 口安芯三 闇日三茸卜茸千蕪
三
ithe
phot
蕊捲藻茂
･
* The Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University, Sede Boker Campus 84990, Israel
/Fax: Q72.7 WAWfv)
200
flows in the roof and is cooled upon leaving it, in a heat exchanger. This energy is stored in a water
reservoir for night use.
The LRF further absorbs all the long wave radiation from within the
Lt
Ra
Bg
g;E
晶戸口呈" 苛。 ; ま巳 三
仁 口蕊比 " 三日間日まy 干; ; 。 " 日酊 苫 。 苫 き耳 三ぎ
草 三三 れ 。祥三
greenhouse can be kept closed throughout the day at near optimum temperatures even in hot
sunny climates. The greenhouse atmosphere may be enriched with CO^/ even at high radiation
levels - a major factor for increasing growth and yields. Als0, and no less important, water
。
、
、
，
，
consumption by the plants in our LRF-controlled closed greenhouse is drastically
amounting to some 10% of the water required in the open field for comparable plants
ドヰ
curtailed,
oof
te alai
cooling
『
rculationfan
he
ex
tow
r
anger
Wate
「
S
L
A
JA
円ヨe ワが『
」
旧 F pUm
・
waterPu
川p
Fig. 1. General schemeof the liquid radiation filter (LRF) greenhouse (Gale, Levi, Kopel & Zeroni,
1995)
The combination of controlled temperatures, filtered radiation, high humidity (without
condensationon the leaves) and high ambient C02 throughout the day/ has resulted in yields
which are nearly always more than double those obtained in the best conventional Israeli
greenhouses. Economicanalysis, however, suggests a cost break-even requirementof only an extra
20-30% yield
Five years of experience with a 330m2modelof the LRF greenhouse at Sede Boker (by Gale,
Levi, Kopel & Zeroni, 1995) show that (i) in this greenhouse very little supplementary night-time
winter heating is required; (ii) the system can be kept closed throughout die day, apart from a few
hours per day during hot weather; (iii) water use is very low,; (iv) leaf condensationdoes not occur
and (v) insect entry is
ノ
r
al aI
・
3
l
very
了
much retarded
e
3.1 General background This is an entirely new approach to agriculture in arid regions, whichin
common with the controlledenvironment
greenhouse, is tuned to benefit from the unique desert
brackish, or sea water, to producebiomass for various economic purposes, covering a potentially
very wide range of natural products, human food and animal feed
The idea to grow microalgae as a source of biomass for various economic purposes
201
ま
:tan
三三三蕊 F
S
L
A
JA
三三
匿
gF
三三理 日三日 E弔
三三 ま
distribution and most important - facilitate
F盟目まれ 三
目
temperature
easy
弓上荘 員よ言藍三晶卍 F
control during day-1ight as well as
ERL
)Ven;
:X RZ:
nto:S5eSL;roVer
Open
耳
A P 庶アお， ;iE?
jif卍 great
ま三 ml
;ぶ
、
三菅 、
三ほ。
ぽ
productivity facilitated by the
。
narrow
，
ば三ご
，
乞三
茸ミ
。
どぽ
。
light path. Thus
an
average
ミミ、
。
，
三三 ま耳三
daily productivity of Spirulina
202
aken by open systems and ca. 15% of their volume. These frac
3ping
ictric
1
The
a
meaningful
hope
productivity
efficient
for
reduction
i.e.
developing
and
cost
result
effective
of
production
microalgaculture
in
aphotobioreactors
decreased
cost.
costs
into
of
an
which
production,
industria
wou
[t@smybelie
@ ----@
―、
of Spi'rifli"
小
S
L
A
JA
'ig. 2: Newlydesigned flat inclined
modular photobioreactor
Conclusions
Both
ofthe
biosystems
described
i.e.- anovel
liquid
radiation
filter
greenhouse
and
.
(1991C)
^SOSt^ 5S, 203-206(1995)
Journal of Arid Land Studies
G旧
eNa 口口 Rub
APmmmising Sour ぽ ofLa
F S
・
A
・
b ，･ eh
・
N
Y
ReCeut
可g
K
，，
g5
胡C
CORNISH
以血 M
， ，
，
and
R 山 uC卜
WW
・
SC
・
Q
，
IT
・
，，，
mbberfmmD
『
e(R
L ぬ川
),adesenn818tQIbasgQQ8tp omisQa8annpgwabIe
『
pw
『
叫
iDtbe
丸0 川
・
・
:
，
耐
products market to replaceallergy causing latex. Guayulerubber particlesare formedandremain in the
市
叫血如 la 妹臥
甘 onfrom
e
山
山休
tprocedunn8tba4 fmmDtbgB
F
o bL叫 I@f@we
川甘) Ourp ese4tation の ve 卜 U@he
低血 o1o川
市veIop
t 口 L d め ex
h 山hd
トL
く
「
・
町
the latex, the properties of the latex, and the cultivation of the shrub for commercialization
Keywo
皿血
山 :Gw 川
。，
LateI,RUbber
，
川 叫
。
，
" 。 ' 。。
RubberpIoducts madefDom 山e Bnnzilianrubbertpee
甜三安 。
(
比 wo
加のすル川な )areknownto
S
L
A
監ぎ苦 L@nSoF
おP 三三 牒Lt
t
ほほ 十
瑠 もぽま;
，，
口u 弍
臨 ほご盟臨 :
。
responses of subjects exposed to Hevea latex items (Tomazic et a1., 1992).
International
conferencese.g. (CramCommunications,
1993; InternationalLatex Conference,1992) have been
口nduC
On 山 eem 口 rpe.Cause and confrolof 山 em 川口
u
川ergl&
JA
，
・
implications for the actual commercializationof this crop (Wright et a1., 1991). Commercialization
Stoh
y
，
h 山e
L lg0o S Oautomobiletiresin
，
，
Nonnh Ameh 口 weDe m
uLC 口 d
仕om
guayule rubber (Hammondand Polhamus,1965). Guayuleshrubs were harvestedfrom wild stands
* U.S. Water ConservationLaboratory. USDA-ARS, Phoenix, AZ 85040, USA
FAx:
の 2 3794355
・
** Western Regional Research Center, USDA-ARS, Albany, CA 94710, USA
*** Maurice Morton Institute of Polymer Science, Univ. Akron, Akron, OH 45325-3909, USA
JA
S
L
A
205
resinand ha8 a M山 ney vMoS 町 ofabout60% ofthe 比 w 口atex Wa ぬ
SQlubIeimpu
「
dtaesCan beremov司 by waShing,but山 ereSin in甘ma ねLaSSoCiatedwf山山e 川bb可
COn面 nS about6%
・
paruuClesmustbeLmov 口 by 幻udph 畔 ex血c 甘Onoramixtufeofwa ぬ SQlubIeo叫血ぴ山 at
not のagub 忙山e la仁x
S
tofpud 行口 bo爪 iSS 甘
u 川derhv 卜廿ga 甘On
・
・
1eR in
Guayule r 酎 nlSSyn 山印b ぬ 血山 e e川ぬ eu寸 ceIlsandSeCret 山 into 山e ductlumen (JoSeph び
d 。 1988). MostofoUrunderstandlng ofthereSinousma ほ
S 川d 山血の mwSMon isb
On
4
solventextmmCtDon
n
e
，
he
e me 山川 0l a ぽtone,
，
，
，
aDd mixtUpes)of 血e 旦旧
e
b
・
ThereSin hasa 九
血 eeffeCtonSQlvent@extraCted
bUlk rUbber ぴeuer4 d 1981). A l ぴge
v 血e け Of の口pounds have been iden甘L 口 血小e extnnCts hCIu山町 肱vonoidS
n%
sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene esters, fatty acid triglycerides,and polysaccharides. (Banigan et a1.,
1982, Kumamoto et a1., 1985; Schlomanet a1,, 1988;Schlomanet a1., 1991). One of the fatty
acids, linoleic acid, appears to be the cause of the degradationof bulk rubber. Since most of these
resinous materialsare not water soluble, they should not create a processingproblem, unless they
・，
，
bound 口山 e 川bber
，
cl ぴ・
The resin itself has potential as a plasticizer modifier in epoxy resin coatings (Thames and
ぽm
，
1991) W
・
impregnat司 M山山 e reSin waSfound to be resistantto a v 拍e け Ofw
S
L
A
damaging insects, including termites, and some species of fungi and molluscan borers (Bultman,
et a1., 1991).
Chemical derivatives of resin and resin fractions were shown to improve the
properties of rubber compositions(Schloman, 1988). The value of the resin coproducts could be
significant.
JA
ua Ie cultiv tion
GuayUlecultIvat4on hasnever been done on a largeand の n ぱnuou8 S e hL
a ばOn On 池
cultUrehaSdevelop 司
OUgh 山 eyearS 川 d 山elaStmauorreSeafch S山山卜 of 山 e 1980'Shaveb ぽn
の mpu 山 by
iMorth and
teh 巴d (Lgl)
Guay 山 e is 山Ou如 tbl
t 川d
卜町0 川
under dryland conditions of 300-600 mm rainfall per year in coastal areas to 1,500 mm in arid
・
・
regions with supplementalirrigation (Nakayamaet a1., 1991). Rubber yields can be greatly
enhancedby additionalwater applications andwater regulationis possibly thebest management tool
for optimizing shrub and rubber production (Nakayama,1991). Farming operationsfrom planting,
cultivation,to seed and shrub harvestinghavebeenessentiallymechanizedusing existing equipment
with minor modifications (Coates, 1991).
Bulk rubber yields have almost doubled through germplasmimprovementof the older guayule
lines (Estilai and Ray, 1991). The questionremains,however, whetherthe latex yield is equivalent
to solid rubber yield. Other factors relating to latex yield are the age of the plant and season of
―
harvest, since rubber synthesisis also relatedto these factors (Backhaus, 1985; Benedict, 1982).
Answers to some of these unknowns must be obtained as the research on agronomicdevelopment
progresses.
Much of the latex production researchis in the developmentalstate at present. Except for the
agronomic studies that are being conducted in field plots, the latex work is laboratory oriented.
There appears to be little problem in the scale-up of latex production to meet industrial
requirements. However, all of the variousfactors from agronomicpracticesto latex extractionand
fabrication must be coordinatedand verticallyintegratedto achieve rapid commercialization.
Since latex extractionis water-based, large volumes of water will be requiredand this may be
a premiumin the semiarid to arid regions where guayule is expected to be cultivated. However,
much of 山 e water used in 山 e extfaCtion pr 叫卜 SCan be
r 叩yCl司
・
206
R。ト
" 。叫
Backhaus, R.A. (1985): ?sraelJournalof Botany 34: 283-293
口
B g川Ct
TC上R v(19
也
):bLw
んL 川八
PO
而
We CS W
L Sp
(19
町g
ぬ):
・) OfA
m叫山卜山司
bof
F p oidCo
e而坦:427431
山 vol
&
BL
可血wMy
J.ItD
N Y pp.355-369.
L LL 雌ve8J 杣
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ヴ TL P
V 呵 dB州 w C A (19
町):TO un8
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TL 血OI0 韮 : 1刀 川 1
B 斗 J J @ (1975@: b W心 M
University of Arizona, pp. 41-51.
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QaOfG 川
L
Tucson, AZ. pp. 241-259.
Cornish,K. (1995): U.S. PatentOffice,PendingPatentApplication
08/4423,911.
市
C
山，
山
K8Dd Sa 打 D J (1叫 4):P
Iutemm.CoM
fortbe
v 川吋
tofb4 山
C のp8
P
口ぱ o 瓜 Ltd. (t993): LateIprotei4Allergy:TbePpeSeutPosition. Cram COmDuaiCatiQa8
，
・
･
・
・
・
Rubber Consultants,
Hertford,UnitedKingdom.
―
)
・
，
。
，
ぬ,A4aDd Rgy,D.T o (1991):h J.w
Monnh
aad E B whitehead(Bd8o) G旧 6 Na
R はb
UsDA
CS
O市叫 of
山 S
卜 UHv 吋 Of
め口，
q
叫 47 91
M B L a4d po
川 LoG. (1如 55@:Be8eapCboa Gw o L
わ切ヰ @m4rgenf
可 ): 1942 1959 UsDA
Tぴh Bull No.1327. U S P 血血go 而吋 w
gton D よ
IutemmQtiou8ILgtex
COMe 叫 (1992):
i 肘町 toLatexi4 MediC8lDeぬ
FOOd aDdD[ug A4
8也Fon
・
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・
，
USA
Josepb,J.]wP.,Shab,JJ
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L
A
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，
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，
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，
，
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om
B寸
・
，
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地L
J A4 (1988): AnnaI8ofBo
，
・
A
J
。
竺 :377 387
，
川 F S (1991):h J.vy
orth and EoB.
tebead@Ed8.)G仰 e Na巾司 R bber USDA
n Az
pp 217 2
N y 岬 F S BuCk8,D ・ん Go回
C L 川 d Foster.M A (1991):h J.W -whltworth and FEE
(Eds.). Guayule NaturalRubber. USDA, CSRS, OALS.Tucson,AZ. pp. 145-172.
N y 川 F S 川る山 巳ぬ W (1995@:P
b
山ぱ・
AdvaDCememtofIDdu8
日寸 Crops
H
y
O
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・
トイ
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廿
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)
N拍 OuaIACadeuyofSCienCe8.(1977):GW ぴ AnAltenna66veSounCaofNatural@Rub
卜r N
Wa5ho.D.C 80 叫
寸 uo
w W。 乃 (1988):hd 瓜 t@t
「
ial 如d En 口前 gCbemistpyRe8eammh
辺 :712 716
寸川O
w w 。 lr 。
I のn D w auIHiltQn A S (1988):
，旦: お 9 249
卜川O
W W。 Jr。 MCGRdy J J 川4 Huba A S @ (1991): mo
ume TL 卜Ono
叫 韮 : 191 196
W W ，な。 "dy R A。
A a4dADdpews,M A (1983):JoufnalA如 CuIぬほland F
Chemistry, 31: 973-976
Suer D よ
山 市，K (1994): bd 川卜 aIC口ps 川 d P UCね 才 307 313
TayloL B C @ (1975):ID Wお MCG
ぽ au4B.F.
Q山 ) P
h
山M U川ね比 a 。 fGW
。
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Uuivengt@@
OfARpoDa,pp.41-51.
・
，
・
・
・
・
・
・
・
Thames,
Tomaric,
S.F.
VJ.,
and
Withrow,
Clinicithrow,
Kaleem,
T.J.,
K.(1991);
Fisher,
Bioresource
B.R.
andDillaid,
and
Dillard,
Technology,
S.P.
S.F.
(1992):
3$:
185-190
Clinical
Tmmunologv
and
Inununopatholo
E:89 97.
Mo
J w 川d
E E (1991): G叫 eNa
Rub卜 r USDA
川Hght G N。 F [eL S gDd
w川 RoD. (1991):InJ W
MonnhandE E
NaturalRubber. USDA, 口 M Q
n M pp.351-365.
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比
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e
I'.WfiCT^5S, 207-210(1995)
Journal of Arid Land Studies
山雌
T ぽMmb 町 forDese 「
tAq
Sa 山u 可
P
班A
*
血h COmp北 d w芦血 O血 er 叫 b 瓜 in IS口可
，
Key wofds: aquaCul
，
bnCM山 g の血 e
川 water,deSe
n,
『
teChnoloW
Introduction
ユ
JA
B
Table 1.
Name
OfvVeu
MLM 卜
SadeI
恢"
Sade 2
F
市ぬ m
2
Nitzana
A
2
S
L
A
m
山仁。
1955I
7
g
"
(me血可
cMSh
の山山
water
口
g
IfnI 山e
tricto
diS
atNegev
mg
5
"
け
・
2 80
270
2710-
320
43
350
Temp
り
(
390
-
1 74 5
914
1152
1982
732
1
，
t
TDS Ftow
m3
川ね
ぬ
92
-
4
B 口 CuShg の山 可 m可 water 廿OmtheCenom
5
15 2
川 i 川-
37 2
On
410
390
25
aqdLriShuSe
330
血
卸打
Of
For the past 25-30 years, brackish water has been used for irrigation of agricultural crops. With
little initial scientificguidance,the encouragingresultsachieved stimulatedand enhancedresearch
work and cooperationbetweenscientists and farmers. Today, desert agriculture in Israe1,based on
the use of brackish water, is modem, sophisticated, profitable and provides products for the local
0il
market,
and
grapes
and
for
for
export
wine.
atpremium
prices,
eg,sweet
tomatoes,
melons,
hay
and
recently
olives
for
Campus,
'"Desert
Aquaculture
84990
Israe1.(Telefax:
Unit,
Blaustein
972-565-871)
Institutefor
Desert
Research,Ben
Gurion
University,
Sede
Boker
208
Desert Aauaculture
2
in Israel
The history of desert aquaculturein Ramat Negev district startedin the mid-80s whena joint
research venture between the AquacultureUnit of the Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Researchin
Sede Boker and the Research and Development Division of the District Council of Ramat Negev
examinedthe suitabilityof the local brackishgeothennal water for fish rearing. The experiments
were carried out with eels, Tilapia, carp and catfish. The study found that the tested water: had no
negative effect on the growth and development of the fish; no harmful effects on the fish body; no
detrimental effect on the culinaryquality of the fish; and that fish sufferedless from parasitesin
brackish water than in fresh-water.
Today, desert aquacultureon a commercial scale exists in the Ramat Negev District. Thereis a
dynamicamong the local settlersand externalinvestorsfor accelerating the development
of this
industry. It is expected thatwithin a few years, theIsraeli desertwill provide significantquantities
of edible and ornamental fish, produced in modem, intensive but environmentpreserving
technologies, for the local andexport markets.In additionto fish production, fish processingplants
wilI 卜卜比比 h司 so 山れ山 e
FSh'MIl 卜
比低 daSahigMy
ノ山 四
etLm
To the best of our knowledge, with the exception of an operationusing wel1-water in the
Califomian desert,Israel is the only country with desertaquacultureusing brackishgeothermal
desert water. It is obvious that this innovation will soon be adopted by other countries with similar
COn山廿OnS
・
2
2
1
，
・す
BenefntSof 也 euseof
・
1
・
(め
a如
・
(b)
低 S山
S
L
A
Wat 汀 inI 細口 :
A large reservoir of brackish geothermal water - the desert water lies below the Negev
D 巳e 止
(c)
(d)
JA
Desert water, by its own force,reachesa level of approx. 20 m aboveMSL, and from
pumpedfrom the Sea of Galilee.
eU 臼 geofd
wat 町 jS 市回 toavoid 回 ina ば Onof 山 e&
wa ぼ
QL
a 血 Ch司 to it Tbemoref 「eSbowaterlSuSed
in 山eaEEaofBeerSheVe ( 山 eNegev 口 pi回 )
山 emoreb 『
mCklshwaterhas 口 bepum
towoid 而 S ぬ k
(句
・
，
，
Desert water is alreadyis use for agriculturalirrigation,howeverto a limitedextent only,
（
D
( 旦)
(h)
CD
L
as some crops cannot withstand its salinity.
Proper use of desert water for irrigationshould not cause salinationof the soil as the
loCal
川 dwat 打 iSd 比p
water.
The effluentandexcess of fish growing water must not be returnedto thefresh-water
aquiferbut can be usedfor irrigation.
）
2.1.2.Subiectiveadvantages for desertaauaculture:
(可
Thesalinedesertwaterprovides
an osmoreeulatory
advantage
forthefishandis more
a high qualityfish product
8
2 2
(a)
(b)
(c)
，
，
よざ砦了 ま話口監 器よ andwln
は
三賭g器g淵ぽ晶
三田
low 血 hu血山川
，
・
stpongwin
low
p 田 pi
山
血皿の
M血MghduStd
nぽ n血而山
Si坤esho teS n;
句
0
臆淵ぽ器a c盟R晋能ほ姦isofahigh
汀 temP
口
e 山川
卜
Sofar,
山可
toIe
e口ほMO
dby
行山Cipt印MOIOgieSinu
ぼ而 r 町 Owingw
-wateFn
血 h d nのn山廿OnS
(山
『
（（
・
口
whichmaximizeits characteristics
片
209
重な蔑箆蒋豆螢漿点琵緊
em[@0
11IL
な 再里葵藍茸琵
JA
L
姥灘匹擦琵箆
専至態閣安琵崔至耳巨緊琵阜蕪呈
S
L
A
in臆果器lonfeaturesof
山 etwo
phnCiphnolo
申 eeS(above),whichCh
打 aCte
市enShgowing
口
210
3
回
Conclusions
OuSquantftiesofSubS
a ぼ g の山
"
S
L
A
JA
。。。
"
司
口 口
卜 卜
く―― -
L 血 wgtwgnervnfDCpnf
而山 eN恥w
口 口
―――――――――――――――― ノ
口。"p"
。。
州
。
。ぬ'
Fig.1. Schemeof the technology for feeding
fish at high density
1 川ト
ぬァ
2 Vlb「olor h。 。 'i
・
・
コ FL8て Loblg
4 S ng
・
5
・
・
clD 山 P
叫
了 FeLd
・
トヰ
L Lア
ヰ
0. Control unit
g
・
UPpe
ト
eleCL 山dヰ
10. Submergedolactrods
Fig.2.A self-demand vibrofeeder for fish
WSWSi 5S, 211-214(1995)
Journal of Arid Land Studies
B 土 Oremed
土 at
Of
土 On
Abstract
-
In
to
As
available.
・
Aharon
arid
the
a
and
all
bacterial
find
SO
土工
S
and Zeev
ABELIOVICH*
zones
time
PO 工工 uLed
AL
土d
2OneS
RONEN*
metabolic
Suf 亡土 C 土 ent
in
the
activities
are
エ
S
contaminant
s
which are
easily
biodegradable
elsewhere
accumulate
due to lack of
ava ユエ aabエ e Water.
There 互 O:Ore,
the
オエ mmltat エ o]onS
エ mpoged
on mエ C て Ob エ a 工
metabo オエ C aCt エ v エ t エ es by the SCarC ユヒ y Of ma ヒてエ X Water
make the
dege てヒ a muCh
more
上 nerable
env エ ro
ent
than
mo エ S ヒ 工 andS
LO
pollution
due to anthropogenic
activities,
even
by otherwise
necessarily
by recalcitrant
biodegradable
compounds,
and not
we
that
土n
chemicals.
w。 て d ヨ
Key
エ
，
工
nLroduC
Soil
utilization
compounds
sources,
・
wa
ヒ
er
Life
エ
C
&
エ
norgan
エ
ヒエOn
bioremediation
or
degradation,
results
in
environment
2
Organ
:
by
bacteria
is
Contam@nants,ochre,
C
Nエ t て aLe5
S
L
A
of
an
anthropocentric
various
toxic
definition
and
nutrients,
organic
for
the
inorganic
their
own
benefit,
either
as
energy
sinks
for
disposal
of
reducing
power.
Incomplete
or partial
transformation
of toxic
molecules
often
the
accumulation
of
toxic
end products.
An arid
imposes
severe
limitations
on these
activities.
to
JA
and bacteria
are
no
the dominant
factor
which
Free
water
availability
is
all
activities.
influenced
in the soil
by many factors,
and these
in turn
might
of bacteria
present
in the
affect
differently
the various
types
The amount
of available
water
in the soil
(water
potential)
soi1.
is determined
by their
matrix
potential
(affected
by adsorption
and
capillary
effects
of the soil
composition
and structure)
and their
osmotic
potential
which is determined
by presence
of solutes.
exception.
regulates
requires
In dry
available
water
soils,
microbial
free
stress
water,
is
all
bacterial
metabolic
activities
are restricted
the place
when and where sufficient
matrix
water
is
available,
whereas
the
activity
of
the
water
will
determine
or halotolerant
or halophilic
bacteria
whether
regular
heterotrophs
a specific
site.
As a result
we
find
that
in
will
develop
within
the desert
contaminants
which
are
easily
biodegradable
elsewhere
accumulate
due
to
lack
of
available
water.
Therefore,
the
limitations
posed
on microbial
metabolic
activities
by the scarcity
of matrix
water
make the desert
much more
vulnerable
than
moist
lands
to
pollution
due to anthropogenic
activities,
even
by
0therwise
biodegradable
compounds
and not necessarily
by
to
1n the desert,
the time and
*Environmental
Micrbiology
エ nSt
Ben Gurion
Univ.,
・
Unit,
Sde
The Blaustein
Desert
Boker
Campus,
Israel
(Fax:
Research
+972-7-
212
reCa
エC土
L Chem エ Ca
ttr
工
S
・
One WOUエ d a 工 SO e ゆ eCL that
natura
工
mエ CCrob エ a 工 b 土 COdegraCdatt 土 Ve aCt 土 V 土 t 土 eS
duL 土 ng wet
seasons
will
be
エエmエ ted
LO what
Can be aCh ェ eVed by a POPulat エ On Of ma ユ n 工 y
gr
positive
spore
formers,
as
these
have
the
highest
chances
for
survival
during
the
dry
seasons.
From
the
point
of
view
of
soil
serves
as
a matrix
which
holds
the
biodegradation,
the
bacteria,
the pollutants,
and the water
In the soi1,
water
makes the contact
between
the bacteria
and their
target
substrate.
In
this
respect,
dry soil
in arid
zones
is no different
than wet soil
in a wet region.
However,
beside
these
considerations,
it should
be realized
that
an arid
zone
is not just
an area
which
simply
has
less
rainfal1,
where
"everything
arid
zones
is affected
so エオ COnt 却ユ nat
is
essentially
the
but
same
little
less"
. The issue
of bioremediation
of soil
in the desert
is not a
matter
of simply
adding
water.
Arid zone
means
a different
life
SLy 工戸f and SPeC エ f エ C adaPtaL 土 On5 to C 工土 mmmate and enV エ ro
ent
L エ fe エ n
these
desert
エ
Srae
and
3.
different
エ
we
specific
C
e
by many
エ
OOn and
connotations
aCroSs
result
SeVer
interacting
b エ oremed
aat エ on
エ
and meanings
口上 PO 工工ut
of human life
エ
On
Probl
factors,
than
S
of
・
frequenL
and activities
Acrriculture:
and because
工
in
wh
y
wet
エ
Ch
in the
haVe
エ
n
Lhe
regions.1n
巳「e
desert.
a
d エ reC
ヒ
S
L
A
Agr 土 Cu 工 tu 二e 土 n an 土 d zoneS
often
means
エ てr エ ga ヒエOn
エ S
w エ th
recycled
waste
water
, and this
generates
a whole
set
of problems
such as salinization
of the soi1,
due to the fact
that
each passage
of the water
through
the municipal
water
system
increases
their
JA
salinity
by about
which are
abundant
water
with nitrates
in
the
water.
These are slow processes
but
their
エ ly
become eV エ ddent.
Soils
irrigated
with effluents
from Beer
Sheba
waste
water
treaLment
pl 劫t (Kap 工川 et a オク エ 987) con ヒ a 土 n エ ng ( エ n mg ノエ ) :
Zn - 130+/45; Cd
1.1+/-0.9;
Pb 32+/6; Cu 24+/-15,
show
at the
upper
50 cm layer
a gradual
increase
in the concentration
of these
(the
soil
was
irrigated
up to 20 years
with
metals
along
the years
effects
recycled
on the
100 mg/1, contamination
of the soil
with metals
in the effluents,
and contamination
of ground
which originate
from nitrification
of the ammonia
waste
so エオ gradua
these
to (in
effluents)
PPB)Zn120+/-49;
fromconcentrations
Pb225+/-44,
below
&Cu
detection
144+/-47.
level
Whether
(cadmium)
this
accumulation
of metals
into
an environmental
(of which only 4 were studied)
problem,
and how contaminated
treated,
will
soil
develop
will
be
question
that cannot be answered
at present.
3.2 Ochre
in
A different
issue
associated
with
agriculture
in the desert,
is that there is frequently
a high table
of saline
ground water
below surface,
and
irrigation
is possible
only
if combined
with the instalation
of a drainage
system
which
prevents
elevation
of the saline
water
table
to the root
zone.
These
dra
COnd
n OnS:
PeS ;presence
frequentlyclogged
of 50-100ppb
byiron
of ironron
bacbacteria
in anaerobic
under
specific
ground
土土 t P
土土
water
flowing
into
an
development
of
bacteria
gelatinous
ek
ヨ
・
mass
This
(ochre)
p てObl
aerated
of
that
エS not
the
will
drain
genus
clog
てegt 二エCted
pipe,
the
to
will
drain
the
dese
usually
pipe
「t
and
induce
generate
within
en 寸エてo
the
several
nt
，
but
a
JA
S
L
A
214
extract
an experimental
sequential
batch
of deg 「ada ヒエOn
土n
Lhe
SO エエ
extract
by the natural microbial
population
present in the soil
(we
assume
that the TBP is totally
degraded as no new peak appeared upon
the disappearance
of the
TBP peak) , it
was found
that
both
populations
removed TBP from the extract,
though
the
adapted
microbial
population
from the
reactor
was much faster
than
the
「,
reacto
amended with
was
natural
population.
Although
bacteria
COmpa 「ed With
itS
「ate
was inhabited
by a
both the chemicals
that
were
used
as markers
as well
as other
pollutants,these
remain
trapped
in a stable
condition
and
it seems that
no or very little
b エ Odegraoda ヒユVe act エ V エ ty takes p 工 ace on site
demonSLrat エ ng aga エ n the
vulnerability
of the desert
environment
to chemical
pollution,
because bacterial
activity
is arrested
by lack of water.
Whl 工 e g 工 ucoSe
enhanCed
degradat エ ve aCt エ v エ Ly
by the
enrichment
cultu 「e Under aerob エ CC COnd土 ttエ COnS エヒ wag found that under anaerob エ CC
conditions
it inhibited
degradation
of TBP by both the natural
soil
the
bacterial
on the
from
soil
population
contaminated
capable
site
degrading
of
，
，
that
Crob
different
a popu
ation
metabo
and
ic e
in the degradation
mエ
上
上
上
are involved
conditions.
，よぎ ，三三聖 三 E三 y 。 昔士呈呈 三三三
nLnL
S
L
A
三 、「 三三二コ
上
of TBP under
aerobic
三三三三三三 ミ
and anaerobic
As mentioned
earlier,
TBP was used only as a convenient
marker,
and
although
it was totally
degraded,
this
by no means implies
that all
were removed as wel1. Thus we find that toxicitv
other
contaminants
JA
(in Microtox units)
3-4 fold,demonstrating
are frequently
more
5
COnCluuS
・
increases
in aerobic biodegradation
experiments
that end products of incomplete biodegradation
toxic
than the original
contaminants
エ On 呈
environment
lacks the self
purification
mechanisms
environment
free
of biodegradable
contaminants,
and
It
is
therefore
more sensitive
to the
long term effects
of
permanent
or uncontrolled
release
of such pollutants
than the wet
environment.
In the desert,
both
agricultural
pollutants
and
industrial
waste
water
have to be treated
at their
source,as
contaminants
will
not
disappear
naturally,
even though
they are
biodegradable
in the laboratory.
that
The
desert
keep the
References
エ iov 土 Ch
吐e
P 土 PeS
KaP an
heavy
工
meta
上上89
Belkin,
SC
エ
，
D
meta
，
工
―
，
A 口r
・
・
wet
山 CU 工
tur ゑエ Water
S.,
，
End
―
OOf― p
、
・
327-334
A.
，
the
Brenner
and
―
エエ2
"best
. Sci.
available
treatment
A.
エ
The
・
path
Abeliovich.
drainage
soil
・
エ
(1993
fate
Changes
of
土n
2 エ，
B 土 O 工 0 耳土Ca
工
・
Belkin,
S.,
A. Brenner,
Treatment
of high-strength,
Dro 口r 、
"
:
，
・
a 工 ong
血 O エ・，辺 :105
TeC
飢 ent
Abe エエOv 土 Ch A and Ben ― YaakoV
5
(T987):
工 s
in waSStewater
stab 土オエ2att COn ponds:
distrlbution
エエ94
Manaq
Techno1.
A.
Lebel
complex
and
and
technology"
. 29:221-233.
A. Abeliovich.
toxic
chemical
vs.
and
in-plant
1994) :
wastewater:
contro1
JA
S
L
A
216
thus
B ユ。て e
・
瓜 d エ叶エ on
・
way to
b エ Or
・
3
申互 s ユヨ tenCe
d ユ at
ユ
On
エ
S qto ensure
to
guL
enhanCe
aCtan
ntStheir
are non-toxic
biodegradation
b Odegradat
and
on
biodegradable
byusing
usngsuitabli
guttab
(Fry
ee三廿孟C7taL
3)0
)
0
亡
success
エ
of
surfactants
，
ユ
エ
enhancing
in
エ
上
degradation
oil
寺号 三
has
て
so far,
been
・
that
三て
/th;R
三
somewhat
V
hydrocarbQn-degradlng
abe and u the Cエnve
OOrgaL
t エa,gat
g]gms
エo]onS
Can
inproduce
thiSVe
。" aCt
veneeded.
0
emuls
Severa
y ng
エ
言量 言呈
StUd
ii
エ
。三
色ト十八与エ ng
Ca
日
Kuwaエ t
present
t 。。
互 「
エ
「
i
て
ユ
色
言言 呈員芸匡巨
C エ OCO4
te
巳
t
i
盲員
(Bal
日
: 闇浦 亘緊
Ou「 エ ntent
g 工 obal
・
a
M。 low
・
4 ・ユ :
B ユ。て e
Ca 工土だ Oて n 土 a
，
耳
JA
St 八 d エ eg
e
Olonエ日 not to
oveLUiew
O互
エ
d ユ aatエ olon
USA
三三
and Bew 工 eyr
l992)
discuss
ln detail
the
per 上 olormanCe
HeaVv
of
S
L
A
て
。
エ
エエ
三三言 三 ，
ユだ
臣藍
久
コ
エ t エー
Step
la 比 rat 。 ワ
tyY Study
亡 Oエ l
ed
by
互エ e 上 d
de 口 nSt て atatユ ol
(Ba
如d
Y土 n<
199 ユ ]
山 he
巳 Oエ l
COnta エト ed
与 tly
エエ nea て
and
b て anChed
a 工k
eヨ
エn
the
c22
p 上廿 "
"
g。
(F 土 g. l) P エ th bo エエ九g DOエ nt aLVe
200 ｡ C. The laboratory
proqrannne
o上
t
て 色色
mu
a
tab
匝
エエエ
，
・
included
and
microcosm
also
nut
The
intensive
てユ
ent
studies.
e エd
。咋
d
microbial
"""
エ。 "
onStTa 止エOn
O互
SO エ上
川L 北九 w th 口w
the
oilb( 10%)
OaL
ntat
oon
was
o treated
the soby
w b
杜汁 which
f 血
工
ved
甘エ
ユ
20
ユ
エ止
才
土
a
ure
。
エ
m3
h
甘
Cr 。 もエ巳人
土工
r 土g
・
lGag
eng
C
;
亘享
these Pro eCt 巳 f but On 上y to
and e 互互 eCt エ Vene 巳日 O亡 th エ s
エエ
エ
、
工
・
this
cont
t nation
O lbeaVy
(BagngLe
and
grL
o y
1991).
The programme
consisted
茸
エ
土低
。土工
ハ
t
graP
ぬ ana
エy
of卜aけ
口
日ユ日
217
inocula
上
eてt
and
ersr
ユエエを
the
曲 。二色
l
organic
and
inorganic
wh エ Ch Pa8
deve 工 Oped
to"yr
w
エn
tilling
ug
Surpexng
co"
natu
y eand
O the
in contaminantand
contain
spite
spite of the
concentration
the extremely
(100,000
elevated
mg
/Kg),
starting
more
85%
eduCt
oil
「
工
互
than
・
。エ
てエヨエ
て
On
Time (Weeks)
エn
weekS
COnCent
oat
b OwaS
e edemoved
at olon
w
(F
th
g nn
2)
28Ptg.2BsQilgtaはr 杣
ofhea
面向Oleum
め yapd
Qiltn
Reg
d
oilO:On
constxtuents
consisted
て上 エ
土 廿a 工
エ n エy
O亡
molecules
4
互
・
エ
which
2:
B 土 。て e
ThL
日 tudy
ea ヨめエエエty
。f
巳エ・ r
soil
エ
g90).
and
polluted
川
て
「
エ
エ
aspha
エ
d ユ aL 土 Olon
。。服 ""
晦S
or
Oi 工 C 。 nta
""
山
more
OcCup
ユ OOn
than
would
prove
very
狐
degrade.
土叫
，。
Le
叫 eS
也廿 the
o 茸 13
mean8
s
叫 le 日 )
P 。工工 ut 。 d
the
川
エ es
""
。 エオ -
てa 工
ヨ ew
6 meters,
JA
area
"。
(F
S
L
A
to
。。価 ""
皿 nat
of
。土工 @
エ Olon
，
エぽ
・
s
hard to
o土
conduct
Site
土
・
てe ヨ
肚 d 土 at
a
b エ 。Le
depth
エエ
tenegr
slow
were
The
the
to
ユ
上
。だ
the
and
"b
expensive.
。
エ aLt
エ CeS
" 。"
" 寸b
" 。
エ nP エ tu
。"""
"" 。 "
""
bioremediation.
process
was
designed,
incorporating
onsite
b ユ or 帥ed 土 a
at エ OOn
of
heaVy
e 入 Cavatedd
C 工 ay
SOi 工 (2O0 m3)r CO 仙 ed wエ th
土 n 日土 t 八 b ユ Oて
d ユ at エ Olon 上 Oて dee
r layer 与 (1600
Both
the
onS エ te
and
人 L ヨユ tL
・
supplemented
SFCt
a
工
an
with
"" " 如 ""
血 Cて。 b エ巳工
。
surface
"""" 班
active
agent,
Time (Weds)
mgthods
and b 十 o<odeg
て adadat
土 olon
d
GC/ pIDD ana 工 ysis.
The re 冬 u エ t
bioremedial
ion of
the
excavated
て 。Sc<Cop 土 Cc
COn
showed
上エ
that
CL
口
・
Oi1-
エ
地
contaminated
Desert
"
at
' 。"
V町ェ川 8 ぬ
叫坤比
Soil
nVaS
OVe
On saLdhundreds｛f
occupationKuwait's
of the 0COnt
wells were
gg0f
eXpOd8d
eSulttiag
dL LgntheQags
raq
'"
。の 雌。
"" 加 """
ユ
「
ユス
エ上
八
エ
工て
エ
・
。
・。 "
如re than 33 m@工 lion m3 which needs
not
pose
a critical
health
hazard
to
man
and
「 e 与 to 二 aat ユ Olon Oだ d
ged
eCosyst
川
Du 「 ing
the
OaSt
seve て a エ yea 「 gf
Ruwa エ t
エ n8titute
ヨ。エエユ日
it
卜n8
does
e 。 tTn@A+ted at
・
てエ
to
"
'
also
，
互 or
ユ
エ
。。
be ttreated
O
与
to
stimulate
SC
ユ eLt
ユ｣ユC
Rese
エ
エ
。。
that
the
ch
JA
S
L
A
WW^i
5S, 219-222(1995)
Journal of Arid Land Studies
EvaluatingTechnology
for AutomatedDeterminationof CropWaterStatus
MarkD. GREENSPAN*andMarkA. MATTHEWS*
AbS甘aCt
血山 S 5山dy we 心 SQ5 Mo 比血0[叩卜 UltraSonIca のに 血 e 而 SSio山 and
山 e Ome
fQraUtomateddeoenminotionof c Op water stotus Mea5UpementSof aのに uC e 血 SSio卜
皿C口口e のIo四 va「
habICS,aDdc OpwaterS 口 weeCQnduct田 in CaImo而 awtme が v 血ワ 町山
川 wMCb"" """
p 田 "。 口 Ily M。、
"e]d L d"""e v 血e"" 仁r5 卜" FOraの 山 tiCe 而 SSio卜 山e 口口l
・
，
，
「
，
「
，
・
「
，
，
，
numberper daydetected
in steinswas wellcorrelated
(r^ 0.95)withthemiddayleafwaterpotential
of
that stem. The infraredcanopy temperature measurementswere used in conjunction
with other
micrometeorologicalinputsin severalmodelsof thecanopy energy budge! Themorerigorousmodels
were ableto epreSentd5
『
の " 血 "0 山
waters
ぬ
・
Opy S山 C皿 eand 山luSpoovidedsup市 lor卜
・
a 低寸 " 而り血
S
L
A
KeyWords:evapotranspiration,
irrigation,
energy budget,
acoustic
emissions
I
JA
h 廿OduCboL
Environmental
concerns andincreased
nonagricultural
demandfor waterare puttingirrigated
agriculture
in addandsemi-arid
environments
underincreasingpressure to utilizelesswater more
efficiently.Fundamental
to prudentdecisionsaboutwhenandhowmuchwaterto applyin crop
productionis knowledgeof crop waterstatus.An unequivocalanalysisof crop waterneedscan
onlybeaccomplished
bya plant-based
systemsinceplantwaterstatusrepresents
an integration
of
theevaporative
demand
created
byprevailing
dailyweather
conditions
andthesupplyof soilwater
thatis relatively
insensitive
to dailyweather
changes.Of thetwoplant-based
systemspresently
available,
pressure chamber
analysisof plantwaterpotential
is excessively
timeconsuming
and
not suitedto automation,andthe other,hand-heldinfraredthermometry,lacksresolutionand
reliability.Bothrequiretechnical
expertise
andfrequent
sampling
by hand.As a result,these
approaches
are seldomutilizedin production.
We reporthereon initialfeasibilitystudiesconducted
for two technologies
for automated
assessment
of crop waterstatus:application
of new field-1eve1,
micrometeorologica1-based
energy
・
budgetsandindividual
plant-based
detection
of acousticemissions
(SanfordandGrace1985).The
energy budgetmodels can be used to determineboth evapotranspiration
(ET) and stomatal
conductance.Test applications
for bothtechnologies
were conducted
in winegrapevineyards,
wheremoderate
waterdeficitsare usedto increasecrop quality(WilliamsandMatthews1990)
* Dept. of Viticulture and Enology, Univ. of California, Davis, California, 95616
USA (Fax: +1-916-752-2275)
220
2oMatehaISandMethods
「
Field eXpe
enL were COnduCted血 a CO erCM 乃仇 V加准川 "C 孔 emet SauH四 On'
vineyardnear Lodi,CA, USA. Vineswere dripirrigatedevery otherday;waterdeficitswere
imposed
by withholding
waterfromsome vinesfor severaldays,andwater statuswas determined
bythepressurechamberandleafporometrytechniques.Acousticemissions(ae's)were detected
witha piezoelectric
detector
appressed
to basalshootintemodes,
andsignalprocessingequipment
thatallowedselectionof a threshold
signallevelto avoidambientacoustical
noise.
Theenergy budgetapproach
was conducted
in threephases:computer modeldevelopment;
fieldexperiments;
andmodelverification
usingfielddata.Themodelingapproach
was to develop
energy budgetshavingtwolevelsof complexity
- a simple"Bigleaf" modelanda more complex
"Multilayer"mode1.TheBigleafapproach
was appliedas bothsingle-andtw0-1ayer
resistance
models,similarto Kustas (1990),althoughtherewas little differencebetween the two in
performance.
Theresistance
networkwas solvedfor theresidualcanopyresistance
andconverted
to stomatalconductanceunitsby dividingby theleaf area index. The Multilayermodelwas
constructed
aroundtheapproachoutlinedby Norman
(1979)wheresubmodelsare includedfor
lightpenetration,
soilenergy, leafenergy, andturbulent
transport.Theapproach
was augmented
to includeverticalandhorizontal
stratification
of lightpenetration
andleaf energy budgets.
Sourcesand sinks of heat and watervapor were averagedacross the lateraldimensions
for
S
L
A
JA
constructing
theverticalprofilesof airtemperature
andhumidity
usinggradient
diffusion(K-
血 eo ワ)
もuent
廿
止r
Om 1975)
Field experimentswere conductedin 3 commercial
vineyardsto simultaneously
make
measurements
of environmental
conditions
andof vinewaterstatusduringperiodicdroughtcycles.
Canopy
geometry
was measured
andarchitecture
was quantified
byleafarea densitymeasured
as
a function
of heightbyhorizontal
pointquadrats.
Theenvironmental
measurements
were made
by instruments mounted on a towerlocatedat the downwindend of the vineyard. The
measurements
madewere: windspeedanddirection,
airtemperature,
humidity,
net radiation,
shortwave
radiation,
soilheatflux,canopyandbaresoiltemperatures
(infrared
thermometry).
Additionally,
above-canopy
fluxesof sensible
heatandlatentenergy were measured
usingeddy
correlation.
Eachmodelwas verifiedusing,as inputs,thediurnalenvironmentaldatathatwas collected
inthefield.Theoutputsofthemodels
(ETandstomatal
conductance)
were compared
to measured
v 寸 ueS
・
3. ResultsandDiscussion
3.1Acousticemissions,.Moderatewater deficitscause substantial
lossesin stemhydraulic
conductivity
ofpottedvines(Schultz
andMatthews
1988).Theselossesare attributed
to cavitation
221
events in stem xylem as tension increases during water deficits. Cavitations are detectable as
ultrasonicemissions (Sanford and Grace 1985) Preliminary experimentsin the growth chamber
demonstrateda well behavedpattern of ae's, increasing with water deficits and decreasing upon
recovery. Therefore, further experimentswere conducted in a commercial vineyard to test the
feasibility of using acoustic emissions technology for automated estimation of vineyard water
status. Experimentswere repeated at two stages of development,before and after the onset of fruit
ripening. Sensors were attached to the basal intemodes of two sun shoots on vines that were
continuouslyirrigated and on vines from whichwater was withheld over eight days. Daily totals
ofae's were recorded and regressedonto the middayleaf water potential for the same shoots (Fig.
1). The data show that accumulatedae's increased rapidly after midday leaf water potential
decreased belowabout -1.0 MPa. A 2nd order polynomial regression of daily total ae's to midday
shoot water potential producedr2= 0.95. Thus the application of acoustic emission technology to
estimate vineyard water status is feasible and warrants further investigation.
3.2 Canopy energy budgets,. Our results indicate that, using only a small number of on-site
environmentalmeasurements, vineyard water status may be estimated for a representative portion
of a vineyard to reasonable accuracy. The quality of the estimate is greatly dependent on the
canopy modelto whichthesevariablesare input. Both the Bigleafand Multilayer canopy models
were capable of estimating vine stomatal conductance
under differing levels of water stress. The
Multilayer mode1,however, produced estimates of stomatal conductancethat were considerably
more representative of the values that were measuredmanually (Fig. 2). This is indicated by
superior correlation coefficient and a slope more near unity (Fig. 2).
Using the same set of environmentalinputs,each modelestimates instantaneouslatent energy
fluxfromwhichdailyET can be obtained.The Bigleaf modelproduced relatively poor estimates
of ET (1^=0.46,
slope=0.45), but the Multilayer modelwas able to provide excellent estimates
(r^0.g0,slope=0.99).
The Bigleaf-type models may be made suitable for continuous, low-growing canopies
However,it failed to perform adequately in a vineyard canopy with hedgerowconfiguration and
large expanses of bare soi1. The failure of the Bigleaf modelcan be attributed to its simplifying
assumption that all energy transferand evaporationoccur on a single hypothetical surface whereas
theseprocesses occur on a multitude of surfaces including leaves and soil in vineyards. The soil
contributes sensible heat flux that is advected into the canopy, increasing evaporative demand.
S
L
A
JA
TheMultilayer
model
iscapable
ofrepresenting
thelightenvironment
within
thefoliage,
the
energytransfer
bythesoilandvarious
leafsurfaces,
andthetransport
of heatandwatervaporinto
the air so that the canopy environmentcan be representedin detail mathematically. This added
rigorlendsitselfto superiorestimatesof vineyard stomatal conductanceand ET with only a small
numberof inputsfromfield sensors. Further improvementsmay be realized by expanding
the
current one-dimensionalturbulent approach into two dimensions to accommodate the lateral
222
variation
insources
andsinksofheatandwater
vapor.Thiswillinvolve
expanding
theturbulent
transport
submodel
froma relatively
simple
K-theory
treatment
toa tw0-dimensional
second
order
closureapproach
(Meyers andPawU 1987,Wilson 1989)
1200 メノ・
09
・
08
･
・
テ
ヰ山0 "
8山
"
<", 600
-
卜
三
口
山
く
0
・ア
o山
o
古 o山
4山 -
B
o4
巨
0 3
Multilayer
r2= 0.78
5@Ope=o 89
Bigleaf Model
r2= 0.63
slope = 0.48
・
も七
・
・
山 02
・
200
-
S
L
A
JA
O
・
00 メノ
0 山上
'
，
-1.0 -1.2 -1.4 -1.6 -1.8
十
00
・
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
MeaSuredgS(Cm
S山
MiddayLeaf WaterPotential(MPa)
Figure2. Energybudgetmodelestimates
Figure 1. Daily ae*s from field-grown
shootsat variouswater potentials.
of stomatal conductanceversus the mean
OfmeaSurぬ Stoma回 COnduC
位 nCe for
sunlit leaves
References
Kustas,W.P. (1990):Journalof AppliedMeteorology29:704-710
%
NQrman
J@
こL 鍔あ :
8o87)0n
LX X4:14 "ph"2
ぢ
おほまぉ ; 岩
ば刊ぽ出耳三
ぎ 百二 ほ
背二ぽ。匹
SanfordA.PandGrace,J. (1985):Journalof Experimental
Botany36:298-311
・
S 山d 年 H;K 川 dMat 山
品ぽ
;十
M A (1988):PI川 tPhy5;010酊 88:718 724
(1975):L
三笛三 V theA(l991
品7草まお "X*.A
二口口
,J山:
山ぼ
田
，
・
・
ヂ・
S ぴ ie廿 OfA 耳OnomyMono年 aph
・
計戸
* でお
Wilson.J.D. 1989. Estimationof ArealEvaDotransDiration.IAHS publicationn0. 177
・
。・
ま了
bRNi "
。，，。
，
刃卜 2あづ%(1995]
山L而叫 Of 片u ぬnd St 山Ls
・
New
So エエエ mprover
K FUJITA*
・
Abstract-(GE0-SANGREEN)
key
寸・
are
エ
To
words
some
Effective
recycling
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objectives.
Company,
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converted
The soil
Kitagawa
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and
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from
Coal
人ユ
greening
promote
tasks
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of
the
of
wasted
21st
century.
land
development
of
technique
for
for
preventing
environmental
effective
material
for these
The Nippon
Steel
Corporation
and The Sangyo
Shinko
The Clean
Japan
Center,
have
in cooperation
with
[GE0-SANGREEN],
soil
improver
which
is chemically
ash.
from coal fly
application
procedures
have been investigated
by
The
Ryokka
Kougyo Company.
Scattering
[GE0-SANGREEN]
to
use
are
equally
important
We have
developped
an
S
L
A
JA
soil
materialized
brought
greening
effect
enjoyed
success.
has yet
As
(GE0-SAMGREENI
is
the use
of this
agent,
areas
where environmental
to
significant,
acid
plant,
soil
which
also
effective
material
has
improvements
as
been
are
growth.
existing
It
also
technology
water/air
spreading
needed.
treatment
rapidly
in
for Development
Strategy
In view
of Agronomical
Science,
coal
fly
ash,
product
of
botanical
circulation,
contains
inorganic
nourishment
generated
by photosynthesis.
For
this
character,
we
came
to the
conclusion
that
coal fly
ash should
be used effectively
in creating
fertile
agronomical
environment.
Two important
elements
for
promoting
greening
are
meteor0logical
factors
such as daylight,
precipitation,
temperature,
etc.
2.
and
strong
So
土エ COnd
上
acidity
t
上
One
Oon.
上
上
t
RSHn
ehos
土
00
上
mV
soi1.
of
the
obstructtons
for
g
「een
エ
ng
上日
This kind of soil
has been neutralized
by
adding calcium-containing
materials.
However,
this
system
is not
in view of being
harmful
to plant
by supplying
too much
effective
of reserving
water
and fertilizer,
and
calcium,
lacking
abilities
durability
of effects.
Therefore,
new soil
has to be
introduced
of calcium-containing
materia1.
This
process
is costly.
instead
To improve
acid
soi1,
we
have gone
through
many
experiments
on
chemical
treatment
aiming
at effective
use
of coal
fly
ash.
In
consequence,
we
successfully
developped
[GE0-SAMGREEN]
as
soil
imp rover.
xSSK
aauy
Sg aynO
nngO
in
C ShC t
aknr
L01
エn
0Uy
rn
上
ク
上t
ttey
SLVx
d
土
u Jtt
k rk
e Tf 0 TyTp
Y 000a
0J0
y yn
ka
・
エ。
日上
t O
『
，
J
JaJanap
P
，
p
nFn
fa
a x8
十
83
エ -5 36 -2 3 2丁
-
82 84
一
3
ユユ 3
2
NOILv
コ
L
a日
S
7 耳 o Tos p丁 oe O4 Spa ヨ s 二ユ 14 H丁 Tト
aa-neos
sen
mgaasMvs-0as]
JO
/6 イ 7 V
Oフ Oqd pue
D4Oqd
u
5 e
Gdx3
5 n
6u
6 八丁 1丁づ e s 丁 e P e
O
'sT
uiwoafi
L 6 0
oo
7u3S8
noiiLdaosav
aaivn
山
qT
丁
了
o
sD 丁て
・
seA
ppo
二
ヨ二
@Ia
叫ハ
DIS-8p
丁
丁
・
ユ
乙
・
吉ユ
SRu8
二
J0
ユ
puE
山 Ep
7
sgq
丁
山下 ユ
丁 トロ ユ
ユ
pafie-rnoaug
e
・
[N 日 auD ハ vS-o9gl
JA
S
L
A
aq4
SS8 コ
マ丁
丁
丁 nS8
･
,包ユ 0
て
s丁二ヨ 4コ eユ eq3 8り 4 pue
8v3
丁ユ
ユ
T.
8S
丁
ユ Ud
・
ミヨ
二
乞り
ユ
s
ユ aq3
oユ d uo 4コ npo
丁
ユロ
"E
ヶ
Zz
t s
a
YL
z t
The
ab 上エエ
エ色
characterlstlc
to
soil
て色
1) 「 e5erY
こ
Oon
of
water@
inlF 「 over
「 ese
ア
コ
工 On
OOE て て 上上
zer@
コ nd
t) neutr
コエエ
コ
土 On
of
川コ te 「 ia
工 harmful
for
オコ ntnt growth
2l
p
L
e t
エ
エ
・
of
・
Photo
3.
Crystal
EGE0-SANGREEN]
ShoWn
Fg 2
in
エ
(Electron
・
fF:Hat.er
surface
In
・
So
エ
・
・
ne cont 包土
@GEO-sAHCREENl
by
'A._
A ka
工
Adhesion
ne
e t
S
L
A
女―
@
@'
・廿
ト
le
ぃ Ue un
土ヮ
e8
て
Aオ kal
，
エ
上
n
O
5
n
t pe
n
エ
t
上
Neutr
乙オエ 2at 土 on
エ 川
で ac 土
One of
the
ma
上
た gene
て at
ng
オ
ac
エづエ
SO
エエ・
s O
d
n
@
キ )
C
O
土 ey エ Cエエ
nf
gurcse
エ工
a n-beSnt
，
上
エ
工
コヨ
Lss
工
h
オエ
乙
s
P
口
三工土 zat
between
and
エ ne
e t
・
5-3
eChan
50 土工
ヨ uses
st エ Ong
工 Lyl
@GEO-5ANGREEH@
content
et
f
t
P
ト eutr
エエ ne
m
C t
5-2
丁
roVe
川
ト
Of
た エ エ 上上 zer
― reserV
エ
ab 土オエ tv
乙
Qn
ex
―
change
capaC
土 tV
上
lGEo ― sAHCREEHl
エ
up
t0
200
川 eq ノエ 000 コ。
エ
OtheL
woLds
て
―
vents
て 「 土工 土 zer
so エオ31 「 om
washed
away
by rain,
and
Supp オエ es
エ
ef た乞 ct
vel ノ
。
オコ nt
りア bnLLg
nO
ed s
工
土土
fu
日川
工
COhclaOO
ctne
てエ上
aecO
コ
Ed
Gn
工
エ
n
A k包オエ
工
tension
而つ oged
lD 八丁 A:E
Pe 工 at 土 On bet 川 een
pF and
water
C
Ut
PhdO
土
工工
ceSO
吋
Nn
乞
uaH
CO
エコ
工
工
而
.
F
上
オエ
pawaba
上つ
上
土 @:DeCo
sand
JA
つ
F g・ノ
廿
aoil
Microscope
xl0,Qoo)
土
On
(Ca2*!
@H+@of
by
of
so 土エ
z t
Cat
エ
On
exCkange
1GE0-SAHGREEN)
b
Di 「 ect
neut エコオ土
コ
cQnQn ノオ土 quat
of
adhes
土 On
工 ka エエ ne
A
土
土 On
226
Fig.
3. and Fig.
present
4
models
of
neutralizing
process.
scattered[GE0-SAMGREEN)
p 亡色 C ユ 口十 tat
( 「 a 人 n 止 a ユ lf
O1
LC
斗
・
0
十
1aypart Cle[人
ﾑﾑ SO l
@
paLt
人
C 人も
上
Oo
O1)
Co t6od
a by
2 t@
Pe
Ont rough
ted[LLOionoANCREEN]
Chnge
ば
・
・
ユ
も廿
八
て 土人
も
人
ヱ川 色も
れ
入
も
巳
fo エ t 人ユ 上巳 色 ててて日も口人ng ab 人 エ人 ty and CLC Schematlc
)N も八 t て a エ人巳色 t OOnthrough
p も Lme 巳 t 人 OOn around clay
人
色
Fig.
3.
Schematic
neutLa
model of
エエ2at
土
lly
F土g
On
IGE0-SAMGREEN] was
acid
road
Of
neutLa
acid
by
grow.
オエ zat
土
On
F
・
g
土
・
・
4
エ
・
6-1
JA
2 years
色止
ion
エ
エ
on
electric-
with
SurfaC
色
C mode
exchange
工
O亡
P 八 L 廿 aCCo
S
L
A
Ooriglnai
soil
(3/3 -93)
AT AfterIGE0-SANGREEN]
scattered
on surface
･
イ刃
Fig.
of
5.
proof‘xperiments
[GE0-SANGREEN]
wassdeVelopped
rlceg0,
エ
ge
Schemat
・
SO 人人
On
Through
て
of
5
soil
was improved enouah
(GE0-SANGREEN1 for plant to
6 COnClus
particles
m土 n しる Cha
scattered
soi 工 of the S 土 de ― S エ Ope
to observe
the process
on
of
model
・
・
人
も
Transition
soil
after
of
p1
イ
pH of
(GE0-
SANGREEN1 scattered
byyCheem
ashfor
Caly
mproVe
conVeL+
川entO
n coal
plantgrowth,
especialy at aCd SO
f
工
エ
・
エ エ
土
竪琵三
言ま葺舌亘三
デ
ま
至言三百
Set
f*f F
三
ま
登
三 、三三
エ
t EE
亘 三三
言
呈 三三三三量 員
エ
E
三三 差 三三三
エエ・
i
三言
ぬ
n
Id
A
打せ
2
"獅
'JOu
ヰ
alO
「
川
51
MM
Ecotechniques of Water-saving Rice Cultivation o n Sandy land
Xuewen HUANG*, XinminLIU*, Halin ZHAO*, Zongying HE*. Zhezhu YAN"
ﾑ
Abstract Ecotechniques are the integrated fanning systems which combine rice production and
desert improvement. Some good properties of the coarse sandy can be utilized, the seedling of sandy
cultivatioin have good quality, and high rice production ( 9,000 kg/ha ) in sandy paddy. The key
to water-saving is to put a layer of plastic film in the sandy paddy to prevent water and nutrient
seepage.
The water consumption on sandy paddy is 1195.2 mm using water-saving irrigation one
year.
Sand dunes have been converted into sandy paddy. The ecosystem changes includesoil organic
matter and nutrient increase, and erosion contro1. Rice production has a high investment in the first
year.after one year,the radio of output/ input ratio of 3.1 .This technique has been applied by farmers
in Horqin Sandy Land, China.
Key Words: Ecotechnique, Rice production, Ecosystem, Sandy land
l ln ro d U C tio n
十
storal
Sandy
region
Desertification
ofsemi-arid
ismajor
zone
in
environmentaland
China.
With
population
agricultural
growth,
problem
thecrisis
inthe
between
interlacing
the
agropaarable
・
land decrease, land degradation, human are facing food shortage. Their become serious, in1950,when
the population of Zhelimu league of Inner Mongolia grew from 0.86 to 2.90 million and the arable
2.The
S
L
A
JA
Principle
of the
Ecotechnique
3.Methodology
三二
i
ヌ・ク
・
下三，
L 藷R i Rg
三「ま
，
CU/f クザ a 廿on
浦ぎ
O 十け Ce
干 まね 員ざ阜卑員目目
S 色色廿L 刀gS
。
員き
L荘三鞘，は
LgEOlntr"lon
a "d
TL
巳
三目
よ 三日目百三
ぜミ二芯 。 司
耳
三日。 耳
r
228
SAND DUNE
3 3
D4S 勺 n
SANDYPADDY
Figure1.TheFarmingSystems for SandyPaddy LowLAND
Oク川 a ト中Sav 加 g
十
SaLdP
padd ノ a 刀d LH竹 a 打O刀
Sandy paddywas established in semi-flowing and mobile dunes. The dune is made level with a tractor. The water source and irrigation were constructed. The plastic film is placed in the irrigation
dibh leading to sandy paddy. Sand of 20-40 cm was placed in the paddy. By irrigationthe paddy was
・
，
kept wet or shallow according to rice requirements
ヨ4
ApP ぱCa 廿O乃
o十
eト
十
十
WLe
「
Nutrient fertilizer was applied many times at small amounts each time.Total amountof fertilizer
(chemical fertilizers and manure) is decided by the rice needs and yield.
4 Re 卜 Ults and Di5C 口もも Ion
・
・
・
S
L
A
4.1. Seedling
cultivation
The quality of seedling is critical for rice production. Seedlings using sand cultivation have high
Tablo l Compan5on Of56如 nns Cha口ot如可卜叫 own 卜
JA
chlophyoll content and are vigorous. The
biomass of seedling is 18.6% hgher than
traditional cultivation. The roots have
items
sand cultivation tradition
cultivation more than 2.9 branches per plant, and
2.0cm long.The nice plants develop 0.09
content of chlorophyll (mg/g)
2.35
; ;
branches per day .The plants are short and
l 0
strong. After be transplated, the seedling
dryweight(g per plant)
1 95
口け w司ght( OOt乃叫 rp@ t)
O舛
0 40
grow
quickly, their vigorous growth is
・
sand cultivation and tradition cultivation*
二・
p@
川 t れ 6fght(c巾)
leaf ages
energy of root
abilityof root growth
root branches per plant
root length (cm)
4.2 Water Budget
，
14 5
寸寸・ヰノ
，
3
58
0 ・ひ
38
58
8
・ア
て
，
十
・
ニ
，ア
・
「
十
・
・
advantageous for rice seedlings
6
ア・ア
0
・
如
10 9
3
，
・
・
Rice growth is rapid because of the
coarse.100se sandy soil and high temperature in bed.The plants have nutrients and
la ge
『
「
OOt さ ySte 山 S
・
8
･Agricultural college of Yanbian, Plant Physiology
In sandy paddy
Table 2. Diurnalvariblityof waterin sandy paddy (g/m2 )
time stages
06-07
07-08
08-09
09-10
10-11
11-12
12-23
13-14
14-15
15-16
16-17
17-18
total
transpiration(day )
14
145
217
179
355
311
158
235
8
・
・
8
ア
・
・
4
・
・
・
6
9
ア
0
・
32ア 2
・
lF
3
・
2924
29a4
2549 0
・
time stage
山 0]
01-02
02瓜
叫叫
叫 05
05-06
18-19
19-20
・
・
・
20-21
2] ・な
刃 23
23-24
・
tot司
condensation (night)
め3
・
36 3
40 4
41 6
・
・
・
520
29
41
51
4ア
・
3丁
匁
・
・
・
・
・
4
2
3
0
0
5
41 0
・
5 叫て
Lab
Fly UP